vi
Contents
4.3 The fundamental taxonomic units of
conservation biogeography, 62
4.3.1
Species versus other genetically-based
conservation units, 62
4.3.2
Evolutionarily Signifi cant Units
(ESUs), 64
4.3.3
Other conservation units, 65
4.4 Spatial distributions: from genes to
biogeographical regions, 65
4.4.1
Mapping species individually and
collectively, 65
4.4.2
Phylogeography, 72
4.4.3
Endemism, 74
4.4.4
Biogeographical regions, 75
4.5 Mapping function, 76
4.5.1
Biomes, ecosystems and
communities, 76
4.5.2
Ecoregions, 82
4.6 Natural units in the marine realm, 83
For discussion, 91
Suggested reading, 92
5 THE SHAPING OF THE GLOBAL
PROTECTED AREA ESTATE, 93
5.1 Origins, 93
5.2 Typology of frameworks, 95
5.2.1
Spatial classifi cation of approaches
– contiguous areas, landscape units
and habitat islands, 97
5.2.2
Biogeographical (compositional)
versus Ecological (functional)
approaches, 100
5.2.3
Strategic goals – composition,
function, numbers and
attributes, 102
5.3 Terrestrial protected area schemes, 104
5.3.1
IUCN Biogeographical Regions
(Dasmann–Udvardy) scheme, 104
5.3.2
Endemic Bird Areas, 106
5.3.3
Conservation International’s
hotspots, 109
5.3.4
The WWF Ecoregions
scheme, 113
5.3.5
Important Bird Areas and Key
Biodiversity Areas, 117
5.4 Marine protected areas, 121
5.4.1
Status of the marine realm, 121
5.4.2
Origins and expansion of the marine
protected area estate, 122
5.4.3
A global representative system of
marine protected areas, 123
5.4.4
Reefs at risk – hotspots/
threatspots, 126
5.4.5
Large Marine Ecosystems, 130
5.4.6
WWF Global 200 – the marine
perspective, 131
5.4.7
Coastal Zone Management and
critical seascapes, 132
5.4.8
High seas protected areas, 132
5.5 Current trends and future directions, 134
For discussion, 135
Suggested reading, 135
6 SYSTEMATIC CONSERVATION PLANNING:
PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE, 136
6.1 Introduction, 136
6.2 What is systematic conservation planning
and why use it?, 138
6.3 Concepts and principles, 138
6.3.1
Representativeness, 138
6.3.2
Persistence (adequacy), 139
6.3.3
Effi ciency, 139
6.3.4
Flexibility, 140
6.4 Developing a systematic conservation
plan, 140
6.4.1
Achieving representation, 140
6.4.2
Achieving persistence, 146
6.4.3
Achieving effi ciency, 151
6.4.4
Achieving fl exibility, 152
6.5 Decision support tools to identify and prioritize
new protected areas, 152
6.6 Consultation and implementation of
systematic conservation plans, 155
6.7 What does the future of systematic
conservation planning hold?, 156
6.7.1
Conservation planning is a dynamic
problem, 158
6.7.2
Conservation assets change through
time, 158
6.7.3
A mix of conservation actions could
occur at any site, 158
6.7.4
Better economics and
socio-economics, 158
6.7.5
Dealing with uncertainty, 158
6.7.6
Properly accounting for threats, 159
6.7.7
Persistence – attainable goal or
impractical utopia?, 159
6.7.8
How much should we invest in
improving a conservation
plan?, 159
For discussion, 159
Suggested reading, 160
Contents
4.3 The fundamental taxonomic units of
conservation biogeography, 62
4.3.1
Species versus other genetically-based
conservation units, 62
4.3.2
Evolutionarily Signifi cant Units
(ESUs), 64
4.3.3
Other conservation units, 65
4.4 Spatial distributions: from genes to
biogeographical regions, 65
4.4.1
Mapping species individually and
collectively, 65
4.4.2
Phylogeography, 72
4.4.3
Endemism, 74
4.4.4
Biogeographical regions, 75
4.5 Mapping function, 76
4.5.1
Biomes, ecosystems and
communities, 76
4.5.2
Ecoregions, 82
4.6 Natural units in the marine realm, 83
For discussion, 91
Suggested reading, 92
5 THE SHAPING OF THE GLOBAL
PROTECTED AREA ESTATE, 93
5.1 Origins, 93
5.2 Typology of frameworks, 95
5.2.1
Spatial classifi cation of approaches
– contiguous areas, landscape units
and habitat islands, 97
5.2.2
Biogeographical (compositional)
versus Ecological (functional)
approaches, 100
5.2.3
Strategic goals – composition,
function, numbers and
attributes, 102
5.3 Terrestrial protected area schemes, 104
5.3.1
IUCN Biogeographical Regions
(Dasmann–Udvardy) scheme, 104
5.3.2
Endemic Bird Areas, 106
5.3.3
Conservation International’s
hotspots, 109
5.3.4
The WWF Ecoregions
scheme, 113
5.3.5
Important Bird Areas and Key
Biodiversity Areas, 117
5.4 Marine protected areas, 121
5.4.1
Status of the marine realm, 121
5.4.2
Origins and expansion of the marine
protected area estate, 122
5.4.3
A global representative system of
marine protected areas, 123
5.4.4
Reefs at risk – hotspots/
threatspots, 126
5.4.5
Large Marine Ecosystems, 130
5.4.6
WWF Global 200 – the marine
perspective, 131
5.4.7
Coastal Zone Management and
critical seascapes, 132
5.4.8
High seas protected areas, 132
5.5 Current trends and future directions, 134
For discussion, 135
Suggested reading, 135
6 SYSTEMATIC CONSERVATION PLANNING:
PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE, 136
6.1 Introduction, 136
6.2 What is systematic conservation planning
and why use it?, 138
6.3 Concepts and principles, 138
6.3.1
Representativeness, 138
6.3.2
Persistence (adequacy), 139
6.3.3
Effi ciency, 139
6.3.4
Flexibility, 140
6.4 Developing a systematic conservation
plan, 140
6.4.1
Achieving representation, 140
6.4.2
Achieving persistence, 146
6.4.3
Achieving effi ciency, 151
6.4.4
Achieving fl exibility, 152
6.5 Decision support tools to identify and prioritize
new protected areas, 152
6.6 Consultation and implementation of
systematic conservation plans, 155
6.7 What does the future of systematic
conservation planning hold?, 156
6.7.1
Conservation planning is a dynamic
problem, 158
6.7.2
Conservation assets change through
time, 158
6.7.3
A mix of conservation actions could
occur at any site, 158
6.7.4
Better economics and
socio-economics, 158
6.7.5
Dealing with uncertainty, 158
6.7.6
Properly accounting for threats, 159
6.7.7
Persistence – attainable goal or
impractical utopia?, 159
6.7.8
How much should we invest in
improving a conservation
plan?, 159
For discussion, 159
Suggested reading, 160