Dependence of specific heat on internal energy and enthalpy
34
Derivation box 2.1 State functions described using partial derivatives
34
Enthalpy changes of biochemical reactions
38
Research direction: global climate change
40
References
44
Problems
45
3 Second law of thermodynamics
46
Entropy
47
Entropy changes for reversible and irreversible processes
49
The second law of thermodynamics
51
Interpretation of entropy
52
Third law of thermodynamics
53
Gibbs energy
54
Relationship between the Gibbs energy and the equilibrium constant
55
Research direction: drug design II
56
Gibbs energy for an ideal gas
58
Using the Gibbs energy
59
Carnot cycle and hybrid cars
60
Derivation box 3.1 Entropy as a state function
63
Research direction: nitrogen fixation
66
References
69
Problems
69
4 Phase diagrams, mixtures, and chemical potential
71
Substances may exist in different phases
71
Phase diagrams and transitions
72
Chemical potential
73
Properties of lipids described using the chemical potential
74
Lipid and detergent formation into micelles and bilayers
75
Research direction: lipid rafts
77
Determination of micelle formation using surface tension
79
Mixtures
82
Raoult’s law
85
Osmosis
88
Research direction: protein crystallization
88
References
92
Problems
92
5 Equilibria and reactions involving protons
94
Gibbs energy minimum
94
Derivation box 5.1 Relationship between the Gibbs energy and equilibrium constant 95
Response of the equilibrium constant to condition changes
98
Acid–base equilibria
99
Protonation states of amino acid residues
105
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