341
10 The Role of Local Ecological Knowledge in the Conservation and Management...
conservation or management objectives. For example, LEK on seasons when FSAs
form has helped to establish closed seasons for fi sheries (e.g. in Palau, Johannes
1981 ; YSM personal observation 2010). LEK on seasonality is often incomplete
(Sect. 10.4 ) and seasonality can vary even over small spatial scales in some species. In Melanesia, the peak spawning times of the brown-marbled grouper,
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus , can be staggered by a month or more across sites separated by as little as tens of kilometres (Johannes and Lam 1999 ; Hamilton et al.
2011 ) . While spawning seasons can be linked to the months in a western Gregorian
calendar, in many locations this calendar is not used. For examples, Daw ( 2004 )
found that the Islamic calendar was excellent for identifying synchrony between
FSAs and the phases of the moon (Daw 2004 ) , but of limited use for describing
seasonal trends as it shifts each year relative to the Gregorian calendar. Similarly,
in the Pacifi c traditional lunar calendars identify the months in which aggregations
occur, by associating them with the fl owering of particular plants, as is the case of
groupers in Fiji with the ‘tavola’ or tropical almond tree, Terminalia catapa (YSM
personal observation 2005).
To identify an aggregation as reproductive through LEK, as opposed to groupings
formed temporarily for another reason, the occurrence of both spawning and aggregation should be established using clear criteria and defi nitions (Domeier and Colin
1997 , Chap. 1 ). It is critical that interviewers understand and consider both criteria
during interviews. Care must also be taken with terminology; in some locations
spawning aggregations may be referred to as a ‘school’ (Bahamas for Nassau grouper), so careful interpretation is needed. Moreover, aggregations of fi sh may be
caught at certain times and places that are not reproductive, such as during feeding.
10.4.2 Historical Baseline on Changes in Aggregation Fisheries
LEK is used increasingly by scientists to assess fi sheries that have limited or no
data, or to reconstruct their history (Neis et al. 1999a ) . Johannes and Yeeting ( 2001 )
used information from villages in Tarawa, Kiribati, on declines in bonefi sh spawning
migrations, and their possible causes (demise of customary marine tenure, causeways and gillnets blocking migration routes) that led to a community management
plan. Interviews in many countries mirror biological studies indicating declines in
large reef fi sh species, providing alternative sources of information for species
assessments and management discussions, and promoting strong local buy-in
(Sect. 10.6 ) (Sadovy et al. 2003 ; Aswani and Hamilton 2004 ; Sadovy de Mitcheson
et al. 2008 ) .
A few specifi c examples illustrate the value of such information as well as the
challenges of using an approach that depends on experience and memory. In these
examples, information from interviews could be quantifi ed and usefully compared
to indicate apparent long-term trends. In Palau, grouper aggregation sites yield
mixed species landings (mainly squaretail coralgrouper Plectropomus areolatus and
camoufl age grouper, E. polyphekadion ). Fishers from several communities switched
10 The Role of Local Ecological Knowledge in the Conservation and Management...
conservation or management objectives. For example, LEK on seasons when FSAs
form has helped to establish closed seasons for fi sheries (e.g. in Palau, Johannes
1981 ; YSM personal observation 2010). LEK on seasonality is often incomplete
(Sect. 10.4 ) and seasonality can vary even over small spatial scales in some species. In Melanesia, the peak spawning times of the brown-marbled grouper,
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus , can be staggered by a month or more across sites separated by as little as tens of kilometres (Johannes and Lam 1999 ; Hamilton et al.
2011 ) . While spawning seasons can be linked to the months in a western Gregorian
calendar, in many locations this calendar is not used. For examples, Daw ( 2004 )
found that the Islamic calendar was excellent for identifying synchrony between
FSAs and the phases of the moon (Daw 2004 ) , but of limited use for describing
seasonal trends as it shifts each year relative to the Gregorian calendar. Similarly,
in the Pacifi c traditional lunar calendars identify the months in which aggregations
occur, by associating them with the fl owering of particular plants, as is the case of
groupers in Fiji with the ‘tavola’ or tropical almond tree, Terminalia catapa (YSM
personal observation 2005).
To identify an aggregation as reproductive through LEK, as opposed to groupings
formed temporarily for another reason, the occurrence of both spawning and aggregation should be established using clear criteria and defi nitions (Domeier and Colin
1997 , Chap. 1 ). It is critical that interviewers understand and consider both criteria
during interviews. Care must also be taken with terminology; in some locations
spawning aggregations may be referred to as a ‘school’ (Bahamas for Nassau grouper), so careful interpretation is needed. Moreover, aggregations of fi sh may be
caught at certain times and places that are not reproductive, such as during feeding.
10.4.2 Historical Baseline on Changes in Aggregation Fisheries
LEK is used increasingly by scientists to assess fi sheries that have limited or no
data, or to reconstruct their history (Neis et al. 1999a ) . Johannes and Yeeting ( 2001 )
used information from villages in Tarawa, Kiribati, on declines in bonefi sh spawning
migrations, and their possible causes (demise of customary marine tenure, causeways and gillnets blocking migration routes) that led to a community management
plan. Interviews in many countries mirror biological studies indicating declines in
large reef fi sh species, providing alternative sources of information for species
assessments and management discussions, and promoting strong local buy-in
(Sect. 10.6 ) (Sadovy et al. 2003 ; Aswani and Hamilton 2004 ; Sadovy de Mitcheson
et al. 2008 ) .
A few specifi c examples illustrate the value of such information as well as the
challenges of using an approach that depends on experience and memory. In these
examples, information from interviews could be quantifi ed and usefully compared
to indicate apparent long-term trends. In Palau, grouper aggregation sites yield
mixed species landings (mainly squaretail coralgrouper Plectropomus areolatus and
camoufl age grouper, E. polyphekadion ). Fishers from several communities switched