340
R. Hamilton et al.
Conversely, in many places, older fi shers may never have visited offshore aggregation sites because of lack of access prior to mechanization (outboard engines) of the
fi shery and a tendency for them to focus on inshore resources as they age. In areas
where destructive fi shing practices are used, fi shers are reluctant to be interviewed;
in Busuanga Island, for example, Philippines, many young men use cyanide as a
fi shing method to maximize their incomes but are reluctant to be interviewed
because its use is illegal (YSM personal observation 2006).
10.3.4 Cultural and Social Contexts
Some cultures use or retain detailed information on resources. Others appear to have
little awareness of particular species or trends in catches. Whether this is due to
educational background, historic dependence on the sea, contemporary factors, cultural factors, beliefs or attitudes is not always apparent. Interviews across the Indian
and Pacifi c Oceans in two studies show low awareness of spawning aggregations in
India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Philippines and Thailand with much higher awareness
in the Maldives and western Pacifi c islands (Sadovy de Mitcheson et al. 2008 ;
Tamelander et al. 2008 ) . In Indonesia and the Philippines many people were
uprooted or have migrated to more promising fi shing grounds and have little or no
traditional knowledge of their present fi shing areas (e.g. Sadovy and Liu 2004 ) . It is
also possible that local knowledge on FSAs may be absent because, due to heavy
fi shing, few aggregations remain. In many places such as parts of Southeast Asia,
the fi sheries are in such poor condition, with low catches predominantly of small
fi shes, that spawning aggregations of many species may no longer occur (Sadovy de
Mitcheson et al. 2008 ) . By contrast, many western Pacifi c coastal communities have
long traditions of fi shing on their customary reefs and fi sheries remain in relatively
good shape. Knowledge continues to be passed from one generation to the next;
where communities rely heavily on marine resources the most detailed LEK is
found (e.g. Johannes 1981 ) .
10.4 LEK Can Provide Critical Information for Conservation
and Management
LEK can assist marine conservation and management efforts by providing information on the physical and biological characteristics of aggregations, as well as insights
into changes in fi sheries over time. These attributes of LEK are elaborated below.
10.4.1 Physical and Biological Characteristics of Aggregations
Local fi shers may know where and when some commercial species aggregate for
spawning. If properly validated (Sect. 10.6 ) such knowledge may be relevant to
R. Hamilton et al.
Conversely, in many places, older fi shers may never have visited offshore aggregation sites because of lack of access prior to mechanization (outboard engines) of the
fi shery and a tendency for them to focus on inshore resources as they age. In areas
where destructive fi shing practices are used, fi shers are reluctant to be interviewed;
in Busuanga Island, for example, Philippines, many young men use cyanide as a
fi shing method to maximize their incomes but are reluctant to be interviewed
because its use is illegal (YSM personal observation 2006).
10.3.4 Cultural and Social Contexts
Some cultures use or retain detailed information on resources. Others appear to have
little awareness of particular species or trends in catches. Whether this is due to
educational background, historic dependence on the sea, contemporary factors, cultural factors, beliefs or attitudes is not always apparent. Interviews across the Indian
and Pacifi c Oceans in two studies show low awareness of spawning aggregations in
India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Philippines and Thailand with much higher awareness
in the Maldives and western Pacifi c islands (Sadovy de Mitcheson et al. 2008 ;
Tamelander et al. 2008 ) . In Indonesia and the Philippines many people were
uprooted or have migrated to more promising fi shing grounds and have little or no
traditional knowledge of their present fi shing areas (e.g. Sadovy and Liu 2004 ) . It is
also possible that local knowledge on FSAs may be absent because, due to heavy
fi shing, few aggregations remain. In many places such as parts of Southeast Asia,
the fi sheries are in such poor condition, with low catches predominantly of small
fi shes, that spawning aggregations of many species may no longer occur (Sadovy de
Mitcheson et al. 2008 ) . By contrast, many western Pacifi c coastal communities have
long traditions of fi shing on their customary reefs and fi sheries remain in relatively
good shape. Knowledge continues to be passed from one generation to the next;
where communities rely heavily on marine resources the most detailed LEK is
found (e.g. Johannes 1981 ) .
10.4 LEK Can Provide Critical Information for Conservation
and Management
LEK can assist marine conservation and management efforts by providing information on the physical and biological characteristics of aggregations, as well as insights
into changes in fi sheries over time. These attributes of LEK are elaborated below.
10.4.1 Physical and Biological Characteristics of Aggregations
Local fi shers may know where and when some commercial species aggregate for
spawning. If properly validated (Sect. 10.6 ) such knowledge may be relevant to