66
A. V. Sykes et al.
published on feeding and digestion of cephalopods, with emphasis on S� officinalis.
In Europe, and still during the 1980s, some Italian researchers made a series of experiments (Sequi 1980; Palmegiano and Sequi 1981; D’Apote and Palmegiano 1982;
Palmegiano and D’Apote 1983; Palmegiano and Sequi 1984; Sequi and Palmegiano
1984, 1985) with the objective of understanding the feasibility of cuttlefish culture
in earthen ponds. Further details on these studies are given in Chap. 11—European
Cuttlefish, S� officinalis. In fact, at the end of this decade, this species and O� vulgaris were identified as the most probable species to be mass cultured in Europe by
some authors (Boucaud-Camou 1989; Coelho et al. 1989).
4.5 1990–2000: The Optimization of Culture Protocols
The potential for commercial aquaculture of cephalopods was engaging in its first
steps but it was already acknowledged in several articles (Boucaud-Camou 1990;
Bernardino 2000) and books (Barnabé 1996) regarding such activity. After establishing basic culture methods for several species in the 1980s, protocols for new
species, reliable seawater systems and optimization of protocols were published
during this decade.
The main optimizations (applicable to all closed and semiclosed seawater systems) were the use of biological denitrification (Whitson et al. 1993; Lee et al.
2000), which was controlled by computer hardware and software (Lee 1994, 1995),
and the use of airlifts to substitute pump-driven closed recirculating marine culture
systems (Hanlon et al. 1991).
Updated information on maintenance, rearing and culture of teuthoid and sepioid
squids was published by Hanlon (1990) that included culture protocols for given
species ( D� pealeii, D� opalescens, L� forbesii, S� lessoniana and S� officinalis),
critical information on how to choose the type of seawater system and its design
(location, tank design, control of water physicochemical conditions) and methods
for capture and transport of eggs, juveniles and adults (when these are not available
near the research facilities). This comprised considerations on culture protocols and
seawater systems regarding anatomical and behavioural traits of these species (e.g.
delicate skin and excellent vision) and their locomotor habits (e.g. jet-propulsion escape and the coping with painted tank walls and bottom substrate). While loliginid
squid were characterized as especially sensitive to captive conditions, S� officinalis
was presented as a rather hardy species, able to tolerate relatively high amounts of
nitrogenous compounds (1.0 mg L
−1
of ammonia and nitrite and more than 125 mg
L
−1
of nitrate) and lower salinity (as low as 20 psu).
Boyle (1991) published the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW)
handbook on the care and management of cephalopods in the laboratory, which
covered almost every single aspect regarding keeping a culture of a cephalopod for
science purposes. Among those included, methods for capture, handling and transport, water quality, space requirements and housing and substrate had applicability
for large-scale application.
A. V. Sykes et al.
published on feeding and digestion of cephalopods, with emphasis on S� officinalis.
In Europe, and still during the 1980s, some Italian researchers made a series of experiments (Sequi 1980; Palmegiano and Sequi 1981; D’Apote and Palmegiano 1982;
Palmegiano and D’Apote 1983; Palmegiano and Sequi 1984; Sequi and Palmegiano
1984, 1985) with the objective of understanding the feasibility of cuttlefish culture
in earthen ponds. Further details on these studies are given in Chap. 11—European
Cuttlefish, S� officinalis. In fact, at the end of this decade, this species and O� vulgaris were identified as the most probable species to be mass cultured in Europe by
some authors (Boucaud-Camou 1989; Coelho et al. 1989).
4.5 1990–2000: The Optimization of Culture Protocols
The potential for commercial aquaculture of cephalopods was engaging in its first
steps but it was already acknowledged in several articles (Boucaud-Camou 1990;
Bernardino 2000) and books (Barnabé 1996) regarding such activity. After establishing basic culture methods for several species in the 1980s, protocols for new
species, reliable seawater systems and optimization of protocols were published
during this decade.
The main optimizations (applicable to all closed and semiclosed seawater systems) were the use of biological denitrification (Whitson et al. 1993; Lee et al.
2000), which was controlled by computer hardware and software (Lee 1994, 1995),
and the use of airlifts to substitute pump-driven closed recirculating marine culture
systems (Hanlon et al. 1991).
Updated information on maintenance, rearing and culture of teuthoid and sepioid
squids was published by Hanlon (1990) that included culture protocols for given
species ( D� pealeii, D� opalescens, L� forbesii, S� lessoniana and S� officinalis),
critical information on how to choose the type of seawater system and its design
(location, tank design, control of water physicochemical conditions) and methods
for capture and transport of eggs, juveniles and adults (when these are not available
near the research facilities). This comprised considerations on culture protocols and
seawater systems regarding anatomical and behavioural traits of these species (e.g.
delicate skin and excellent vision) and their locomotor habits (e.g. jet-propulsion escape and the coping with painted tank walls and bottom substrate). While loliginid
squid were characterized as especially sensitive to captive conditions, S� officinalis
was presented as a rather hardy species, able to tolerate relatively high amounts of
nitrogenous compounds (1.0 mg L
−1
of ammonia and nitrite and more than 125 mg
L
−1
of nitrate) and lower salinity (as low as 20 psu).
Boyle (1991) published the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW)
handbook on the care and management of cephalopods in the laboratory, which
covered almost every single aspect regarding keeping a culture of a cephalopod for
science purposes. Among those included, methods for capture, handling and transport, water quality, space requirements and housing and substrate had applicability
for large-scale application.