67
4 Historical Review of Cephalopods Culture
However, regarding S� officinalis, Forsythe et al. (1991) and Forsythe et al.
(1994) provided information on large-scale culture (in a surface area of 38 m
2
and
a total volume of 18,000 L) of several consecutive captive generations in closed
seawater systems (described in detail in Hanlon and Forsythe (1985) and Yang et al.
(1989) for other cephalopod species). Information herein demonstrated that the species may be cultured in most tank configurations (round, square or rectangular), the
tank bottom area being the most important dimension in high-density culture leading to the use of shallow tanks (5 cm for hatchlings to 30–40 cm for juvenile/adults).
This setup allowed the rearing of 3,000 juveniles (up to 4 cm mantle length—ML;
250–300 hatchlings m
−2
) or 200–400 10 cm ML juveniles (≈ 20 cuttlefish m
−2
) or
75–100 adults with ≈ 20 cm ML (2 cuttlefish m
−2
) in a tank with ≈ 10,000 L. These
articles also provided methods for broodstock management related to the reproductive biology of the species. Tank sex ratios of 1♂:3♀ instead of 1♂:1♀ were
suggested as a way to diminish the aggressive sexual behaviour displayed by Sepia
adults. While fecundity in captivity was reported to be at similar levels to those
reported for wild animals, fertility was less than 50 % after the first generation and
null after only seven generations. Whether this was due to inbreeding or to the lack
of symbiotic bacterial populations remains to be determined. Culture cycles were
temperature related, being shorter at higher temperatures, with mean individual
weights of 2.1 kg being achieved in only 14 months.
Other improvements to the culture methodologies of European cuttlefish were
published. For instance, Hanley et al. (1998) described the use of a 34,500 L semiclosed system at the Marine Biological Laboratory (Woods Hole, USA.), the water being maintained between 18 and 20 °C (through the use of heating or chilling
technology), but most importantly at lower nitrogenous compound concentrations.
The use of UV filtration instead of ozone was suggested, due to eventual equipment
malfunction, and the use of large-grain particles instead of oyster shells as substrate
presented the advantage of reducing bacterial settlement and fouling and diseases
resulting from skin damage. A maintenance protocol and measurements of containment were also presented in this work. The use of black plastic curtains in the tank
was suggested by Hanley et al. (1999) as a way to reduce pathologies associated
with wall banging. In addition, Koueta and Boucaud-Camou (1999) described the
use of a semiclosed seawater system (80 % water renewal day
−1
) for the rearing of
hatchlings, which was similar in technology to what was previously reported by
NRCC researchers.
The European cuttlefish was not the only one being successfully cultured for
more than one generation and attaining a real culture potential derived from research at the NRCC (Lee et al. 1998). In fact, Hanlon et al. (1991) reported the
culture of four generations (up to F 3 ) of the Indo-Pacific squid S� lessoniana. Not
only was this species important at that time due to similar neuroanatomical features
to Loligo spp. but it also displayed high market prices in Japan. After being reared in
circular tanks (75–125 cm water column) at hatching (Lee et al. 1998), the squid attained 1–2 kg in just 6 months, with high survival, and tolerated densities of 2.5 kg
m
−3
(3 squid m
−3
) in raceway recirculating culture (Lee et al. 1994). Again, according to the latter two publications, the use of dark tank walls was recommended,
4 Historical Review of Cephalopods Culture
However, regarding S� officinalis, Forsythe et al. (1991) and Forsythe et al.
(1994) provided information on large-scale culture (in a surface area of 38 m
2
and
a total volume of 18,000 L) of several consecutive captive generations in closed
seawater systems (described in detail in Hanlon and Forsythe (1985) and Yang et al.
(1989) for other cephalopod species). Information herein demonstrated that the species may be cultured in most tank configurations (round, square or rectangular), the
tank bottom area being the most important dimension in high-density culture leading to the use of shallow tanks (5 cm for hatchlings to 30–40 cm for juvenile/adults).
This setup allowed the rearing of 3,000 juveniles (up to 4 cm mantle length—ML;
250–300 hatchlings m
−2
) or 200–400 10 cm ML juveniles (≈ 20 cuttlefish m
−2
) or
75–100 adults with ≈ 20 cm ML (2 cuttlefish m
−2
) in a tank with ≈ 10,000 L. These
articles also provided methods for broodstock management related to the reproductive biology of the species. Tank sex ratios of 1♂:3♀ instead of 1♂:1♀ were
suggested as a way to diminish the aggressive sexual behaviour displayed by Sepia
adults. While fecundity in captivity was reported to be at similar levels to those
reported for wild animals, fertility was less than 50 % after the first generation and
null after only seven generations. Whether this was due to inbreeding or to the lack
of symbiotic bacterial populations remains to be determined. Culture cycles were
temperature related, being shorter at higher temperatures, with mean individual
weights of 2.1 kg being achieved in only 14 months.
Other improvements to the culture methodologies of European cuttlefish were
published. For instance, Hanley et al. (1998) described the use of a 34,500 L semiclosed system at the Marine Biological Laboratory (Woods Hole, USA.), the water being maintained between 18 and 20 °C (through the use of heating or chilling
technology), but most importantly at lower nitrogenous compound concentrations.
The use of UV filtration instead of ozone was suggested, due to eventual equipment
malfunction, and the use of large-grain particles instead of oyster shells as substrate
presented the advantage of reducing bacterial settlement and fouling and diseases
resulting from skin damage. A maintenance protocol and measurements of containment were also presented in this work. The use of black plastic curtains in the tank
was suggested by Hanley et al. (1999) as a way to reduce pathologies associated
with wall banging. In addition, Koueta and Boucaud-Camou (1999) described the
use of a semiclosed seawater system (80 % water renewal day
−1
) for the rearing of
hatchlings, which was similar in technology to what was previously reported by
NRCC researchers.
The European cuttlefish was not the only one being successfully cultured for
more than one generation and attaining a real culture potential derived from research at the NRCC (Lee et al. 1998). In fact, Hanlon et al. (1991) reported the
culture of four generations (up to F 3 ) of the Indo-Pacific squid S� lessoniana. Not
only was this species important at that time due to similar neuroanatomical features
to Loligo spp. but it also displayed high market prices in Japan. After being reared in
circular tanks (75–125 cm water column) at hatching (Lee et al. 1998), the squid attained 1–2 kg in just 6 months, with high survival, and tolerated densities of 2.5 kg
m
−3
(3 squid m
−3
) in raceway recirculating culture (Lee et al. 1994). Again, according to the latter two publications, the use of dark tank walls was recommended,