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Rehabilitation programs are well-established as a strategy for T. manatus conservation in Brazil, where it is estimated that more than 100 newborns have been rescued and sent to specialized centers, since the mid-1980s (Carvalho and Borges
2016). Of this total, more than 40 animals were released into the wild, with a success rate exceeding 75% and at least six records of births (Normande et al. 2015,
2016.). In Venezuela, manatee rescues are casual, with most of the animals intended
for zoos, with only one record of release. By 2014, the country had seven specimens
in captivity, of which three were born in the captive environment (Boede and
Mujica-Jorquera 2016). In Colombia, although there is a considerable number of
captive animals in artificial lakes, which are kept under inadequate clinical and
nutritional support, rescue and rehabilitation programs are not intended for the
release of the animals (Caicedo-Herrera et al. 2004).
Several studies have been conducted to determine hematological reference
parameters for T. manatus, both in captive and free ranging animals. This information is essential for the diagnosis of diseases and to guide the appropriate treatments
(Bossart et al. 2001). However, most of these studies were performed on Florida
animals, except for the studies of Converse et al. (1994), Silva et al. (2007, 2009)
and Boede and Mujica-Jorquera (2016), which showed blood parameters of captive
manatees in Guyana, Brazil and Venezuela, respectively. Few native specimens
were evaluated in South America, with no further parameters available for these
populations. The levels of thyroid hormones were evaluated for captive manatees
from Brazil and native animals from Colombia, showing that they are influenced by
diet and that despite the low metabolism of the species, the levels found were similar to other marine and terrestrial mammals (Ortiz et al. 2000).
Information on microorganisms that constitute the normal microbiota or act as
agents of infectious diseases of manatees has been collected from native and captive
animals from Brazil. About 27 species and 15 genera of bacteria and 16 species of
yeasts were isolated from the microbiota of natural cavities of these animals, with
the detection of strains resistant to multiple antibiotics (beta-lactam, macrolide and
aminoglycoside) and antifungals (azole derivatives), respectively (Attademo 2014;
Petrobras 2014; Sidrim et al. 2015a; Sidrim et al. 2016; Vergara-Parente et al.
2003a). There were also differences in the composition of colonizing bacteria
between captive and native manatees, demonstrating the influence of environmental
factors on microbial communities (Petrobras 2014; Vergara-Parente et al. 2003a).
Diagnoses of infectious diseases are uncommon in manatees. Among bacterial
diseases, abscesses caused by Staphylococcus sp., Proteus sp. and Escherichia coli;
ear infections by Pseudomonas sp., Proteus mirabilis and Staphylococcus sp.; colitis by Klebsiella pneumoniae and Morganella morganii and systemic infections by
Salmonella panama, Pseudomonas sp. and Klebsiella sp. stand out (Attademo
2014; Carvalho and Silva 2016; Lazzarini et al. 2014; Montoya-Ospina et al. 2001;
Vergara-Parente et al. 2001, 2003b). Infections by Flavobacterium meningosepticum and Xanthomonas maltophilia were reported as cause of death of three neonates in Colombia (Montoya-Ospina et al. 2001). Fungal diseases are uncommon,
with phaeohyphomycosis reports caused by Bipolaris hawaiiensis and outbreak of
A.C.O. de Meirelles et al.
Rehabilitation programs are well-established as a strategy for T. manatus conservation in Brazil, where it is estimated that more than 100 newborns have been rescued and sent to specialized centers, since the mid-1980s (Carvalho and Borges
2016). Of this total, more than 40 animals were released into the wild, with a success rate exceeding 75% and at least six records of births (Normande et al. 2015,
2016.). In Venezuela, manatee rescues are casual, with most of the animals intended
for zoos, with only one record of release. By 2014, the country had seven specimens
in captivity, of which three were born in the captive environment (Boede and
Mujica-Jorquera 2016). In Colombia, although there is a considerable number of
captive animals in artificial lakes, which are kept under inadequate clinical and
nutritional support, rescue and rehabilitation programs are not intended for the
release of the animals (Caicedo-Herrera et al. 2004).
Several studies have been conducted to determine hematological reference
parameters for T. manatus, both in captive and free ranging animals. This information is essential for the diagnosis of diseases and to guide the appropriate treatments
(Bossart et al. 2001). However, most of these studies were performed on Florida
animals, except for the studies of Converse et al. (1994), Silva et al. (2007, 2009)
and Boede and Mujica-Jorquera (2016), which showed blood parameters of captive
manatees in Guyana, Brazil and Venezuela, respectively. Few native specimens
were evaluated in South America, with no further parameters available for these
populations. The levels of thyroid hormones were evaluated for captive manatees
from Brazil and native animals from Colombia, showing that they are influenced by
diet and that despite the low metabolism of the species, the levels found were similar to other marine and terrestrial mammals (Ortiz et al. 2000).
Information on microorganisms that constitute the normal microbiota or act as
agents of infectious diseases of manatees has been collected from native and captive
animals from Brazil. About 27 species and 15 genera of bacteria and 16 species of
yeasts were isolated from the microbiota of natural cavities of these animals, with
the detection of strains resistant to multiple antibiotics (beta-lactam, macrolide and
aminoglycoside) and antifungals (azole derivatives), respectively (Attademo 2014;
Petrobras 2014; Sidrim et al. 2015a; Sidrim et al. 2016; Vergara-Parente et al.
2003a). There were also differences in the composition of colonizing bacteria
between captive and native manatees, demonstrating the influence of environmental
factors on microbial communities (Petrobras 2014; Vergara-Parente et al. 2003a).
Diagnoses of infectious diseases are uncommon in manatees. Among bacterial
diseases, abscesses caused by Staphylococcus sp., Proteus sp. and Escherichia coli;
ear infections by Pseudomonas sp., Proteus mirabilis and Staphylococcus sp.; colitis by Klebsiella pneumoniae and Morganella morganii and systemic infections by
Salmonella panama, Pseudomonas sp. and Klebsiella sp. stand out (Attademo
2014; Carvalho and Silva 2016; Lazzarini et al. 2014; Montoya-Ospina et al. 2001;
Vergara-Parente et al. 2001, 2003b). Infections by Flavobacterium meningosepticum and Xanthomonas maltophilia were reported as cause of death of three neonates in Colombia (Montoya-Ospina et al. 2001). Fungal diseases are uncommon,
with phaeohyphomycosis reports caused by Bipolaris hawaiiensis and outbreak of
A.C.O. de Meirelles et al.