283
superficial skin fusariosis in calves kept in captivity (Sidrim et al. 2015b; Carvalho
et al. 2015). Regarding viral diseases, Attademo et al. (2013) detected the presence
of rotavirus in captive and semicaptive manatee feces without associated clinical
signs.
As to parasitic diseases, nasal trematode Pulmonicola cochleotrema was the only
helminth diagnosed in stranded animals and specimens reintroduced in Northeastern
Brazil (Borges et al. 2016; Carvalho et al. 2009). Among the protozoa, cryptosporidiosis is prevalent in both captive and pre-release stage animals in Brazil, with
associated intestinal clinical signs (Borges 2007, 2016). A case of myocarditis
caused by Toxoplasma gondii was detected in a captive manatee that died in Guyana
(Dubey et al. 2003). Giardia lamblia infection has been detected in a captive calf
(Carvalho and Silva 2016). Garzón (1997) conducted parasitological and microbiological evaluation of T. manatus in Colombia.
Non-infectious diseases are poorly described. In the last decade we have seen a
higher prevalence of malformations in newborns stranded in Northeastern Brazil,
including fatal cases of hydrocephalus, atresia of the right ventricle, and other less
severe locomotor disorders, such as spinal fusion in the lumbar region, permanent
folding of the caudal fin and scapular-humeral arthropathy. Neoplasias are rare, with
a diagnosis of uterine leiomyoma in adult female stranded in Ceará, Brazil (Carvalho
and Silva 2016). The diagnosis of disseminated malignant lymphoma was conducted in a specimen exported from Guyana to an aquarium in Denmark, which still
had recurrent cutaneous papillomatosis due to immunosuppression (Hammer et al.
2005). Brito (2015) conducted histopathological evaluation of 38 dead manatees in
the Northeast coast of Brazil, and diagnosed disorders such as stomatitis, cardiac
fibrosis, myocarditis, liver fibrosis, pancreatic atrophy and metritis. Two specimens
rescued in the 1990s in Colombia had suspected dwarfism due to a slow development, during more than four years in semicaptivity (Millian-Sánchez et al. 1995).
Serological surveys for the detection of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii,
Leptospira interrogans, Brucella abortus and Morbillivirus have been conducted in
captive South American specimens of T. manatus. Silva et al. (2001) detected a
positive animal for T. gondii in Brazil. Later, Attademo (2014) observed prevalence
of 10.9% of seropositivity against the same parasite and 9.2% of positivity for antiLeptospira antibodies. Native individuals captured in the country were seronegative
for the surveyed agents (Petrobras 2014). Anti-Morbillivirus antibodies were not
detected in captive manatees in Guyana (Duignan et al. 1995). Jiménez-Marrero
et al. (1998) have measured levels of IgG from 20 semicaptive animals in Colombia,
whose parameters can be used in immunological studies and for the diagnosis of
immunosuppression.
Anzolin et al. (2012) performed the main toxicological study of manatees in
Brazil and found high levels of the metals aluminum, lead, cadmium and tin in
specimens maintained in captivity and semicaptivity in Paraíba state. Lailson-Brito
et al. (2010) and Cavalheiro et al. (2016) found low concentrations of mercury and
organochlorines (DDT, HCH, PCBs and Mirex) in tissues of manatees stranded
dead in Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte.
11 West Indian Manatee Trichechus manatus in South America…
superficial skin fusariosis in calves kept in captivity (Sidrim et al. 2015b; Carvalho
et al. 2015). Regarding viral diseases, Attademo et al. (2013) detected the presence
of rotavirus in captive and semicaptive manatee feces without associated clinical
signs.
As to parasitic diseases, nasal trematode Pulmonicola cochleotrema was the only
helminth diagnosed in stranded animals and specimens reintroduced in Northeastern
Brazil (Borges et al. 2016; Carvalho et al. 2009). Among the protozoa, cryptosporidiosis is prevalent in both captive and pre-release stage animals in Brazil, with
associated intestinal clinical signs (Borges 2007, 2016). A case of myocarditis
caused by Toxoplasma gondii was detected in a captive manatee that died in Guyana
(Dubey et al. 2003). Giardia lamblia infection has been detected in a captive calf
(Carvalho and Silva 2016). Garzón (1997) conducted parasitological and microbiological evaluation of T. manatus in Colombia.
Non-infectious diseases are poorly described. In the last decade we have seen a
higher prevalence of malformations in newborns stranded in Northeastern Brazil,
including fatal cases of hydrocephalus, atresia of the right ventricle, and other less
severe locomotor disorders, such as spinal fusion in the lumbar region, permanent
folding of the caudal fin and scapular-humeral arthropathy. Neoplasias are rare, with
a diagnosis of uterine leiomyoma in adult female stranded in Ceará, Brazil (Carvalho
and Silva 2016). The diagnosis of disseminated malignant lymphoma was conducted in a specimen exported from Guyana to an aquarium in Denmark, which still
had recurrent cutaneous papillomatosis due to immunosuppression (Hammer et al.
2005). Brito (2015) conducted histopathological evaluation of 38 dead manatees in
the Northeast coast of Brazil, and diagnosed disorders such as stomatitis, cardiac
fibrosis, myocarditis, liver fibrosis, pancreatic atrophy and metritis. Two specimens
rescued in the 1990s in Colombia had suspected dwarfism due to a slow development, during more than four years in semicaptivity (Millian-Sánchez et al. 1995).
Serological surveys for the detection of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii,
Leptospira interrogans, Brucella abortus and Morbillivirus have been conducted in
captive South American specimens of T. manatus. Silva et al. (2001) detected a
positive animal for T. gondii in Brazil. Later, Attademo (2014) observed prevalence
of 10.9% of seropositivity against the same parasite and 9.2% of positivity for antiLeptospira antibodies. Native individuals captured in the country were seronegative
for the surveyed agents (Petrobras 2014). Anti-Morbillivirus antibodies were not
detected in captive manatees in Guyana (Duignan et al. 1995). Jiménez-Marrero
et al. (1998) have measured levels of IgG from 20 semicaptive animals in Colombia,
whose parameters can be used in immunological studies and for the diagnosis of
immunosuppression.
Anzolin et al. (2012) performed the main toxicological study of manatees in
Brazil and found high levels of the metals aluminum, lead, cadmium and tin in
specimens maintained in captivity and semicaptivity in Paraíba state. Lailson-Brito
et al. (2010) and Cavalheiro et al. (2016) found low concentrations of mercury and
organochlorines (DDT, HCH, PCBs and Mirex) in tissues of manatees stranded
dead in Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte.
11 West Indian Manatee Trichechus manatus in South America…