amount to 96 %, with A. marginatus always present in the nets (Branco 1999;
Branco and Verani 2006a, b). Fishing gear also damages the animals indirectly as
they pass over them and disturb the substrate physically (Micael et al. 2009). In the
southeast region, fishing of sea-bob-shrimp (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri) with bottom
trawl nets results in heavy by-catch due to its low selectivity (Coelho et al. 1986;
Branco 1999; Branco and Fracasso 2004; Carniel 2008; Bail et al. 2009).
According to Bail et al. (2009), 0.04 kg of echinoderm fauna are captured by trawl
nets for each kg of sea-bob-shrimp. Branco (1999) estimates that 7.13 ton d
-1 of
by-catch fauna, including fishes, crustaceans, mollusks and echinoderms are
captured on the southern Brazilian coast, amounting to 1,711.7 ton y
-1 .
Either caught or not by the nets, echinoderms may be severely damaged by
them. Among the damage listed by Micael et al. (2009) are: injuries caused by
demersal trawls passing over the bottom, damage or autotomy of body parts due to
physical contact with fishing gear, interactions with other species in the catch or
handling by the crew, crushing when dropped on to the deck, punctures in the
epidermis, and bacterial infection due to trauma. Echinoderms are menaced also
by the impacts caused by trawls and dredges by scraping or resuspension of the
substratum (Jennings and Kaiser 1998).
Sea urchins and sea cucumbers have been fished commercially all over the
world (Micael et al. 2009) but in Brazil it is illegal to collect native fauna except
fishes, mollusks and crustaceans captured for human consumption. Even for
research projects, special permission from environmental agencies is needed.
Predatory collection for aquarium trade, souvenirs, and decorative pieces, food
markets, and other commercial purposes are threats listed for several species of
Brazilian echinoderms in addition to those listed by Machado et al. (2008),
including the sea star Asterina stellifera, the sea urchins L. variegatus and
E. lucunter and the sea cucumber H. grisea. Sea stars, O. reticulatus for instance,
is illegally and extensively collected all over the Brazilian coast and sold as
decorative pieces, souvenirs or religious objects used in some local rituals (Hadel
et al. 1999; Campos and Lima 2000). Alves et al. (2006, 2009/2010) created the
term zoohandicraft to designate workmanship products made of marine macrofauna. When interviewed by the authors, the craftsmen claimed no knowledge on
the threats the animals were under. Along the northeast coast of Brazil, Alves et al.
(2009/2010) described zoohandicraft production as the only or the main economic
source of many people with strong familiar hereditary tradition.
Because it is illegal to collect echinoderms, except for research purposes with a
special permission, the capture of those animals occurs in an artisanal way. This is
particularly true for sea urchins whose mature female gonads, known as roe, are
prepared as a delicacy. Although not menaced at present, it is known that considerable numbers of E. lucunter, L. variegatus and P. gaimardi have been
collected by hand during low tides or by divers at localities like Ilhabela Island
(São Paulo State). Because there are no external differences between males and
females, and between mature and immature females, a large number of individuals
are killed before the consumers find the desired specimens, resulting in high levels
of mortality. Moreover, killing of mature females, the ones that would produce
9 Echinoderm from Brazil
325
Branco and Verani 2006a, b). Fishing gear also damages the animals indirectly as
they pass over them and disturb the substrate physically (Micael et al. 2009). In the
southeast region, fishing of sea-bob-shrimp (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri) with bottom
trawl nets results in heavy by-catch due to its low selectivity (Coelho et al. 1986;
Branco 1999; Branco and Fracasso 2004; Carniel 2008; Bail et al. 2009).
According to Bail et al. (2009), 0.04 kg of echinoderm fauna are captured by trawl
nets for each kg of sea-bob-shrimp. Branco (1999) estimates that 7.13 ton d
-1 of
by-catch fauna, including fishes, crustaceans, mollusks and echinoderms are
captured on the southern Brazilian coast, amounting to 1,711.7 ton y
-1 .
Either caught or not by the nets, echinoderms may be severely damaged by
them. Among the damage listed by Micael et al. (2009) are: injuries caused by
demersal trawls passing over the bottom, damage or autotomy of body parts due to
physical contact with fishing gear, interactions with other species in the catch or
handling by the crew, crushing when dropped on to the deck, punctures in the
epidermis, and bacterial infection due to trauma. Echinoderms are menaced also
by the impacts caused by trawls and dredges by scraping or resuspension of the
substratum (Jennings and Kaiser 1998).
Sea urchins and sea cucumbers have been fished commercially all over the
world (Micael et al. 2009) but in Brazil it is illegal to collect native fauna except
fishes, mollusks and crustaceans captured for human consumption. Even for
research projects, special permission from environmental agencies is needed.
Predatory collection for aquarium trade, souvenirs, and decorative pieces, food
markets, and other commercial purposes are threats listed for several species of
Brazilian echinoderms in addition to those listed by Machado et al. (2008),
including the sea star Asterina stellifera, the sea urchins L. variegatus and
E. lucunter and the sea cucumber H. grisea. Sea stars, O. reticulatus for instance,
is illegally and extensively collected all over the Brazilian coast and sold as
decorative pieces, souvenirs or religious objects used in some local rituals (Hadel
et al. 1999; Campos and Lima 2000). Alves et al. (2006, 2009/2010) created the
term zoohandicraft to designate workmanship products made of marine macrofauna. When interviewed by the authors, the craftsmen claimed no knowledge on
the threats the animals were under. Along the northeast coast of Brazil, Alves et al.
(2009/2010) described zoohandicraft production as the only or the main economic
source of many people with strong familiar hereditary tradition.
Because it is illegal to collect echinoderms, except for research purposes with a
special permission, the capture of those animals occurs in an artisanal way. This is
particularly true for sea urchins whose mature female gonads, known as roe, are
prepared as a delicacy. Although not menaced at present, it is known that considerable numbers of E. lucunter, L. variegatus and P. gaimardi have been
collected by hand during low tides or by divers at localities like Ilhabela Island
(São Paulo State). Because there are no external differences between males and
females, and between mature and immature females, a large number of individuals
are killed before the consumers find the desired specimens, resulting in high levels
of mortality. Moreover, killing of mature females, the ones that would produce
9 Echinoderm from Brazil
325