new generations, endangers even more those species’ populations. These threats
apply also to the sea cucumbers I. badionotus and H. grisea. Those echinoderms
are reported as a food source for some local populations on southern, southeastern
and northeastern Brazilian coasts (Hadel et al. 1999; Campos and Lima 2000;
Mendes et al. 2006).
About 17 % of the animals in the aquarium global trade are echinoderms
(Micael et al. 2009). Among the species commonly found in Brazilian home
aquaria, and at public or private ones, are A. stellifera, E. (Othilia) brasiliensis,
O. reticulatus, E. tribuloides and I. badionotus. Most of those animals die before
they reach the stores. Even after that, most of them survive only for short periods
and have to be replaced. Therefore, more and more specimens have been collected,
endangering even more the species already menaced by other threats.
Some echinoderm are threatened by low density populations, limited or discontinuous distribution, or because they occur on vulnerable environments. The
endemic sea cucumber Synaptula secreta was described for one locality only, at
Segredo Beach (São Sebastião, São Paulo State). There are no data on the
reproductive strategy of this species, but its distribution pattern suggests that they
brood their young in the coelom, like other Apoda species such as Synaptula
hydriformis and Chiridota rotifera. The brooding sea urchin C. mitis, that keeps
their short-term larvae on the female’s body, is also threatened by their low dispersion capacity and, in consequence, restricted distribution (Amaral et al. 2008).
The sea stars L. guildingii and C. tenuispina have discontinuous distribution
patterns and low population densities, many of which probably persist only by
asexual reproduction. This reproductive strategy decreases genetic variability and
gene flow among populations, rendering them even more vulnerable to environmental impacts.
Besides the threats already stated here there are others worth mentioning. As
benthic animals echinoderms are susceptible to pollutants stored in marine sediments and to biomagnification processes (Camargo 1982; Hadel et al. 1999;
Carnevali et al. 2001; Sugni et al. 2007; Micael et al. 2009). Some species, like
L. variegatus and E. lucunter, have been used for ecotoxicological tests according
to the standard protocol ABNT-NBR 15350 (Brazilian Association for Technical
Standards; ABNT 2006, 2012) because their embryos are a reliable source of
material for biochemical analyses (Micael et al. 2009). Arbacia lixula, another sea
urchin species, has been suggested also as potential test organism for ecotoxicological analysis by Máximo et al. (2008). Although the fact that they are not
regarded as severely threatened species, the use of their embryos and larvae as
experimental tools is leading to an increasing depletion of wild populations in
some regions along the Brazilian coast.
Studies on the reproductive biology, population dynamics and genetics of most
species are needed as well as on the taxonomy of those with high morphological
variations, such as Echinaster species and P. gaimardi. In order to achieve such
knowledge, which depends on long term studies, it is essential to protect these
species through governmental laws that restrict and control collection.
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C. R. R. Ventura et al.
apply also to the sea cucumbers I. badionotus and H. grisea. Those echinoderms
are reported as a food source for some local populations on southern, southeastern
and northeastern Brazilian coasts (Hadel et al. 1999; Campos and Lima 2000;
Mendes et al. 2006).
About 17 % of the animals in the aquarium global trade are echinoderms
(Micael et al. 2009). Among the species commonly found in Brazilian home
aquaria, and at public or private ones, are A. stellifera, E. (Othilia) brasiliensis,
O. reticulatus, E. tribuloides and I. badionotus. Most of those animals die before
they reach the stores. Even after that, most of them survive only for short periods
and have to be replaced. Therefore, more and more specimens have been collected,
endangering even more the species already menaced by other threats.
Some echinoderm are threatened by low density populations, limited or discontinuous distribution, or because they occur on vulnerable environments. The
endemic sea cucumber Synaptula secreta was described for one locality only, at
Segredo Beach (São Sebastião, São Paulo State). There are no data on the
reproductive strategy of this species, but its distribution pattern suggests that they
brood their young in the coelom, like other Apoda species such as Synaptula
hydriformis and Chiridota rotifera. The brooding sea urchin C. mitis, that keeps
their short-term larvae on the female’s body, is also threatened by their low dispersion capacity and, in consequence, restricted distribution (Amaral et al. 2008).
The sea stars L. guildingii and C. tenuispina have discontinuous distribution
patterns and low population densities, many of which probably persist only by
asexual reproduction. This reproductive strategy decreases genetic variability and
gene flow among populations, rendering them even more vulnerable to environmental impacts.
Besides the threats already stated here there are others worth mentioning. As
benthic animals echinoderms are susceptible to pollutants stored in marine sediments and to biomagnification processes (Camargo 1982; Hadel et al. 1999;
Carnevali et al. 2001; Sugni et al. 2007; Micael et al. 2009). Some species, like
L. variegatus and E. lucunter, have been used for ecotoxicological tests according
to the standard protocol ABNT-NBR 15350 (Brazilian Association for Technical
Standards; ABNT 2006, 2012) because their embryos are a reliable source of
material for biochemical analyses (Micael et al. 2009). Arbacia lixula, another sea
urchin species, has been suggested also as potential test organism for ecotoxicological analysis by Máximo et al. (2008). Although the fact that they are not
regarded as severely threatened species, the use of their embryos and larvae as
experimental tools is leading to an increasing depletion of wild populations in
some regions along the Brazilian coast.
Studies on the reproductive biology, population dynamics and genetics of most
species are needed as well as on the taxonomy of those with high morphological
variations, such as Echinaster species and P. gaimardi. In order to achieve such
knowledge, which depends on long term studies, it is essential to protect these
species through governmental laws that restrict and control collection.
326
C. R. R. Ventura et al.