9.4 Aquaculture and Fisheries
Although the collection of echinoderms for human consumption is illegal (Hadel
et al. 1999), aquaculture enterprises to culture Brazilian echinoderms are absent in
the country (Campos and Lima 2000; Ventura et al. 2006). This may be attributed
to a cultural heritage from the first colonizers, mainly of Portuguese and Spanish
origins. In the first centuries of European occupation of the Brazilian territory, the
main purpose was to collect as much natural resources as possible and take them
back to their countries of origin. This attitude towards nature still persists and the
only marine and brackish animals cultured commercially are shrimp. Therefore,
despite their high economic value on foreign markets, echinoderms are still
ignored in Brazil as a potential food resource (Campos and Lima 2000).
9.5 Echinoderm Threats
Nineteen of the 627 threatened species listed in the Brazilian Red List (Machado
et al. 2008) are echinoderms: fourteen species of Asteroidea (Asterina stellifera,
Astropecten brasiliensis, A. cingulatus, A. marginatus, Coscinasterias tenuispina,
Echinaster (Othilia) brasiliensis, E. (Othilia) echinophorus, E. (Othilia) guyanensis, Linckia guildingii, Luidia clathrata, L. ludwig scotti, L. senegalensis,
Narcissia trigonaria, Oreaster reticulatus), three species of Echinoidea (Cassidulus mitis, Eucidaris tribuloides, Paracentrotus gaimardi) and two species of
Holothuroidea (Isostichopus badionotus, Synaptula secreta). Most of these species
live in shallow waters and are easily collected.
Machado et al. (2005, 2008) pointed out several threats that menace Brazilian
echinoderms, among them habitat destruction or alteration, eutrophication, and
erosion. Anthropogenic impacts are caused by the increased occupation of coastal
regions. Landfills, for instance, cause sediment transport to shallow sea waters,
changing the physical and chemical properties of the substrate. The sea lily
Tropiometra carinata, for instance, was once abundant on the exposed rocky
shores of the coast of São Paulo State. Due to anthropogenic impacts, however,
population densities of these animals are decreasing steadily (Hadel et al. 1999).
Oil spills and discharge of domestic or industrial sewage are also side effects of
coastal municipaltie’s development (Machado et al. 2008).
The impact caused by touristic enterprises, including diving, is recognized as
threats to several species of benthic animals, including sea stars, sea urchins and
crinoids (Machado et al. 2008).
Accidental by-catch by trawling boats fishing for shrimp is also listed as one of
the major menaces for echinoderms, especially for asteroids and echinoids that live
on sandy and muddy bottoms (e.g. A. brasiliensis, A. cingulatus. A. marginatus,
L. clathrata, L. ludwigi scotti, L. senegalensis and Encope emarginata). The
number of benthic species accidentally captured by trawl-nets with doors may
324
C. R. R. Ventura et al.
Although the collection of echinoderms for human consumption is illegal (Hadel
et al. 1999), aquaculture enterprises to culture Brazilian echinoderms are absent in
the country (Campos and Lima 2000; Ventura et al. 2006). This may be attributed
to a cultural heritage from the first colonizers, mainly of Portuguese and Spanish
origins. In the first centuries of European occupation of the Brazilian territory, the
main purpose was to collect as much natural resources as possible and take them
back to their countries of origin. This attitude towards nature still persists and the
only marine and brackish animals cultured commercially are shrimp. Therefore,
despite their high economic value on foreign markets, echinoderms are still
ignored in Brazil as a potential food resource (Campos and Lima 2000).
9.5 Echinoderm Threats
Nineteen of the 627 threatened species listed in the Brazilian Red List (Machado
et al. 2008) are echinoderms: fourteen species of Asteroidea (Asterina stellifera,
Astropecten brasiliensis, A. cingulatus, A. marginatus, Coscinasterias tenuispina,
Echinaster (Othilia) brasiliensis, E. (Othilia) echinophorus, E. (Othilia) guyanensis, Linckia guildingii, Luidia clathrata, L. ludwig scotti, L. senegalensis,
Narcissia trigonaria, Oreaster reticulatus), three species of Echinoidea (Cassidulus mitis, Eucidaris tribuloides, Paracentrotus gaimardi) and two species of
Holothuroidea (Isostichopus badionotus, Synaptula secreta). Most of these species
live in shallow waters and are easily collected.
Machado et al. (2005, 2008) pointed out several threats that menace Brazilian
echinoderms, among them habitat destruction or alteration, eutrophication, and
erosion. Anthropogenic impacts are caused by the increased occupation of coastal
regions. Landfills, for instance, cause sediment transport to shallow sea waters,
changing the physical and chemical properties of the substrate. The sea lily
Tropiometra carinata, for instance, was once abundant on the exposed rocky
shores of the coast of São Paulo State. Due to anthropogenic impacts, however,
population densities of these animals are decreasing steadily (Hadel et al. 1999).
Oil spills and discharge of domestic or industrial sewage are also side effects of
coastal municipaltie’s development (Machado et al. 2008).
The impact caused by touristic enterprises, including diving, is recognized as
threats to several species of benthic animals, including sea stars, sea urchins and
crinoids (Machado et al. 2008).
Accidental by-catch by trawling boats fishing for shrimp is also listed as one of
the major menaces for echinoderms, especially for asteroids and echinoids that live
on sandy and muddy bottoms (e.g. A. brasiliensis, A. cingulatus. A. marginatus,
L. clathrata, L. ludwigi scotti, L. senegalensis and Encope emarginata). The
number of benthic species accidentally captured by trawl-nets with doors may
324
C. R. R. Ventura et al.