Some echinoderm species have records in Panama that may represent transient
populations. Arbacia spatuligera (Valenciennes, 1846) is recorded (specimen not
examined) from the reef off French Fort (USNM 1017377), in Panama Bay. This
may be a misidentification or represent a transient population of this species, with
larvae carried up from Ecuador into the Gulf of Panama but with insufficient
recruitment to establish a viable population. This species has therefore not been
included in the Pacific data for Panama, since to the best of our knowledge it is the
only record of this species in Panama. Records of Lytechinus pictus in Panama are
probably erroneous. Mortensen (1921) described L. panamensis based on specimens he obtained from Taboga Island. Clark (1948) collected one specimen from
Bahia Honda as well as one specimen from Gorgona Island, Colombia. However,
Clark (1948) states that these may be specimens of L. panamensis, a view supported by Zigler and Lessios (2004) and Lessios (2005a). Lessios (2005a) reports
that he has only seen two specimens of this species collected off Isla Saboga in the
Perlas Archipelago (8°38
0 N, 79°03
0 W). Clark (1925) and Mortensen (1928–1951)
speculated that Lytechinus from Peru and Ecuador may not be L. semituberculatus
but L. panamensis, with the larvae of this species occasionally settling in the Gulf
of Panama.
Panama is the type locality of 82 species of echinoderms (nine Caribbean, 73
eastern Pacific, one of these species occurs in both the Caribbean and Pacific).
However, four of these species (starfish) are now considered subjective junior
synonyms of other species. The majority of the Pacific species were established
from Panamanian specimens in the late 1800s and early 1900s by authors such as
Lütken and Mortensen (1899) and Ludwig (1894, 1905), as a result of the material
collected on expeditions by the Albatross. The majority of new Caribbean species
were discovered much later in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s by authors such as
Chesher (1968, 1970, 1972) and Hendler (1995 2005), as a result of the laboratories of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama. In recognition of
this, Hendler (2005) named the ophiuroid species Ophiothrix stri Hendler 2005.
4.5 Aquaculture and Fisheries
The sustainable aquaculture of echinoderms in Panama has not been developed. In
1997 the Panamanian government granted a permit for the harvesting and
processing of bêche-de-mer (sea cucumbers) in Bocas del Toro. However, this
exploitation was short lived, with the permit being revoked 30 days later.
Nevertheless, in that short time period Guzman and Guevara (2002b) estimate that
750,000 sea cucumbers were harvested (based on 25 fishermen extracting an
average of 1,000 and a maximum of up to 1,500 cucumbers day
-1 ). This consisted
primarily of three species Holothuria (Halodeima) mexicana, Isostichopus
badionotus and Astichopus multifidus. This quantity represents a biomass of ca.
180 tons (based on average body wet weight of 240 g). If such fishing pressure
was permitted, Guzman and Guevara (2002b) estimate that stocks of the three
132
S. E. Coppard and J. J. Alvarado
populations. Arbacia spatuligera (Valenciennes, 1846) is recorded (specimen not
examined) from the reef off French Fort (USNM 1017377), in Panama Bay. This
may be a misidentification or represent a transient population of this species, with
larvae carried up from Ecuador into the Gulf of Panama but with insufficient
recruitment to establish a viable population. This species has therefore not been
included in the Pacific data for Panama, since to the best of our knowledge it is the
only record of this species in Panama. Records of Lytechinus pictus in Panama are
probably erroneous. Mortensen (1921) described L. panamensis based on specimens he obtained from Taboga Island. Clark (1948) collected one specimen from
Bahia Honda as well as one specimen from Gorgona Island, Colombia. However,
Clark (1948) states that these may be specimens of L. panamensis, a view supported by Zigler and Lessios (2004) and Lessios (2005a). Lessios (2005a) reports
that he has only seen two specimens of this species collected off Isla Saboga in the
Perlas Archipelago (8°38
0 N, 79°03
0 W). Clark (1925) and Mortensen (1928–1951)
speculated that Lytechinus from Peru and Ecuador may not be L. semituberculatus
but L. panamensis, with the larvae of this species occasionally settling in the Gulf
of Panama.
Panama is the type locality of 82 species of echinoderms (nine Caribbean, 73
eastern Pacific, one of these species occurs in both the Caribbean and Pacific).
However, four of these species (starfish) are now considered subjective junior
synonyms of other species. The majority of the Pacific species were established
from Panamanian specimens in the late 1800s and early 1900s by authors such as
Lütken and Mortensen (1899) and Ludwig (1894, 1905), as a result of the material
collected on expeditions by the Albatross. The majority of new Caribbean species
were discovered much later in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s by authors such as
Chesher (1968, 1970, 1972) and Hendler (1995 2005), as a result of the laboratories of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama. In recognition of
this, Hendler (2005) named the ophiuroid species Ophiothrix stri Hendler 2005.
4.5 Aquaculture and Fisheries
The sustainable aquaculture of echinoderms in Panama has not been developed. In
1997 the Panamanian government granted a permit for the harvesting and
processing of bêche-de-mer (sea cucumbers) in Bocas del Toro. However, this
exploitation was short lived, with the permit being revoked 30 days later.
Nevertheless, in that short time period Guzman and Guevara (2002b) estimate that
750,000 sea cucumbers were harvested (based on 25 fishermen extracting an
average of 1,000 and a maximum of up to 1,500 cucumbers day
-1 ). This consisted
primarily of three species Holothuria (Halodeima) mexicana, Isostichopus
badionotus and Astichopus multifidus. This quantity represents a biomass of ca.
180 tons (based on average body wet weight of 240 g). If such fishing pressure
was permitted, Guzman and Guevara (2002b) estimate that stocks of the three
132
S. E. Coppard and J. J. Alvarado