280
Reynolds JD, Goodwin NB, Freckleton RP (2002) Evolutionary
transitions in parental care and live bearing in vertebrates. Proc R
Soc B 357:269–281
Reznick DN, Mateos M, Springer MS (2002) Independent origins and
rapid evolution of the placenta in the fi sh genus Poeciliopsis .
Science 298:1018–1020
Reznick D, Meredith R, Collette BB (2007a) Independent evolution of
complex life history adaptations in two families of fi shes, livebearing halfbeaks (Zenarchopteridae, Beloniformes) and Poeciliidae
(Cyprinodontiformes). Evolution 61:2570–2583
Reznick D, Hrbek T, Caura S, De Greef J, Roff D (2007b) Life history
of Xenodexia ctenolepis : implications for life history evolution in
the family Poeciliidae. Biol J Linn Soc 92:77–85
Richard PE, Dietz TH, Silverman H (1991) Structure of the gill during
reproduction in the unionids Anodonta grandis , Ligumia subrostrata ,
and Carunculina parva texasensis . Can J Zool 69:1744–1754
Rigby S, Milsom CV (2003) Zooplankton. In: Briggs DEG, Crowther P
(eds) Palaeobiology II. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, pp 451–454
Ross JPR, McCain KW (1976) Schizoporella unicornis (Ectoprocta) in
coastal waters of northwestern United States and Canada. Northwest
Sci 50(3):160–171
Ross JRP, Ross CA (1996) Bryozoan evolution and dispersal and
Paleozoic sea-level fl uctuations. In: Gordon DP, Smith AM, GrantMackie JA (eds) Bryozoans in space and time. National Institute of
Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, pp 243–258
Rothchild I (2003) The yolkless egg and the evolution of eutherian
viviparity. Biol Reprod 68:337–357
Ryland JS (1963) Systematic and biological studies on Polyzoa
(Bryozoa) from western Norway. Sarsia 14:1–59
Ryland JS (1965) Polyzoa (Bryozoa). Order Cheilostomata.
Cyphonautes larvae. Conseil international pour l’exploration de la
mer. Zooplankton 107:1–6
Ryland JS (1967) Polyzoa. Oceanogr Mar Biol 5:343–369
Ryland JS (1974) Behaviour, settlement and metamorphosis of bryozoan larvae: a review. Thalassia Jugoslav 10(1/2):239–262
Ryland JS (1976) Physiology and ecology of marine bryozoans. In:
Russell FS, Yonge CM (eds) Adv Mar Biol 14:285–443
Ryland JS (2001) Convergent colonial organization and reproductive
function in two bryozoan species epizoic on gastropod shells. J Nat
Hist 35:1085–1101
Ryland JS, Bishop JDD (1993) Internal fertilization in hermaphroditic
colonial invertebrates. Oceanogr Mar Biol 31:445–477
Ryland JS, Porter JS (2006) The identifi cation, distribution and biology
of encrusting species of Alcyonidium (Bryozoa: Ctenostomatida)
around the coasts of Ireland. Proc R Irish Acad 106B(1):19–33
Santagata S, Banta WC (1996) Origin of brooding and ovicells in cheilostome bryozoans: interpretive morphology of Scrupocellaria
ferox . Invert Biol 115(2):170–180
Saunders MI, Metaxas A (2010) Physical forcing of distributions of
bryozoan cyphonautes larvae in a coastal embeyment. Mar Ecol
Prog Ser 418:131–145
Schäfer P (1991) Brutkammern der Stenolaemata (Bryozoa):
Konstructionsmorphologie und phylogenetische Bedeutung. Cour
Forsch Senck 136:1–263
Schmalhausen II (1949) Factors of evolution: the theory of stabilizing
selection. Blackiston, Philadelphia
Schmalhausen II (1982) Organism as a whole in its individual and historical development. Mir, Moscow [in Russian]
Schwartz ML, Dimock RV (2001) Ultrastructural evidence for nutritional exchange between brooding unionid mussels and their glochidia larvae. Invert Biol 120:227–236
Seed R, Hughes RN (1992) Reproductive strategies of epialgal bryozoans. Invert Reprod Dev 22(1–3):291–300
Sellmer GP (1967) Functional morphology and ecological life history
of the gem clam, Gemma gemma (Eulamellibranchia: Veneridae).
Malacologia 5:137–223
Sepkoski JJ, McKinney FK, Lidgard S (2000) Competitive displacement among post-Paleozoic cyclostome and cheilostome bryozoans. Paleobiology 26(1):7–18
Shanks AL (1995) Mechanisms of cross-shelf dispersal of larval
invertebrates and fi sh. In: McEdwards L (ed) Ecology of marine
invertebrate larvae. CRC Press, Boca Raton/London/New York/
Washington, DC, pp 323–367
Shine R (1978) Propagule size and parental care: the “safe harbor”
hypothesis. J Theor Biol 75:417–424
Shine R (1989) Alternative models for the evolution of offspring size.
Am Nat 134:311–317
Shine R, Lee MSY (1999) A reanalysis of the evolution of viviparity
and egg-guarding in squamate reptiles. Herpetologica 55:538–549
Shunatova NN, Ostrovsky AN (2001) Individual autozooidal behaviour
and feeding in marine bryozoans. Sarsia 86:113–142
Shunatova NN, Ostrovsky AN (2002) Group behaviour and chimneys
in marine bryozoans. Mar Biol 140(3):503–518
Silbermann S (1906) Untersuchungen über den feineren Bau von
Alcyonidium mytili . Arch Nat 72:265–308
Silén L (1944) The anatomy of Labiostomella gisleni Silén (Bryozoa
Protocheilostomata). Kongl Svenska Vetensk-Akad Handl, Ser 3,
21:1–111
Silén L (1945) The main features of the development of the ovum,
embryo and ooecium in the ooecioferous Bryozoa Gymnolaemata.
Ark Zool 35A(17):1–34
Silén L (1947) On the anatomy and biology of Penetrantiidae and
Immergentiidae (Bryozoa). Ark Zool 40A(4):1–48
Silén L (1954) Developmental biology of Phoronidea of the Gullmar
Fiord area (west coast of Sweden). Acta Zool 35(3):215–257
Silén L (1966) On the fertilization problem in gymnolaematous
Bryozoa. Ophelia 3:113–140
Silén L (1977) Polymorphism. In: Woollacott RM, Zimmer RL (eds)
Biology of bryozoans. Academic Press, New York, pp 184–232
Silva IP, Sliter WV (1999) Cretaceous paleoceanography: evidence
from planctonic foraminiferal evolution. In: Barrera E, Johnston CC
(eds) Evolution of the Cretaceous ocean-climate system. Geological
Society of America, Boulder, pp 301–328
Sinervo B, McEdward LR (1988) Developmental consequences of an
evolutionary change in egg size: an experimental test. Evolution
42(5):885–899
Skelton PW (2003) Survey of the Cretaceous world. In: Skelton PW
(ed) The Cretaceous world. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp 9–41
Smith CC, Fretwell SD (1974) The optimal balance between size and
number of offspring. Am Nat 108(962):499–506
Smith DG, Werle SF, Klekowski EJ (2003) The anatomy and brooding
biology of Pottsiella erecta (Potts, 1884) (Ectoprocta:
Gymnolaemata: Ctenostomata) with an expanded diagnosis of the
Pottsiellidae. Hydrobiologia 490:135–145
Smitt FA (1865) Om Hafs-Bryozoernas utveckling och fettkroppar.
Ofvers Kongl Vetensk Akad Forh 1:5–50
Soule JD (1950a) A new species of Terebripora from the Pacifi c (Bryozoa
Ctenostomata). J Wash Acad Sci 40(11):378–381
Soule JD (1950b) Penetrantiidae and Immergentiidae from the Pacifi c
(Bryozoa: Ctenostomata). T Am Microsc Soc 69(4):359–367
Soule JD, Soule DF (1969a) Systematics and biogeography of burrowing bryozoans. Am Zool 9(3):791–802
Soule JD, Soule DF (1969b) Three new species of burrowing bryozoans
(Ectoprocta) from the Hawaiian Islands. Occas Pap Calif Acad Sci
78:1–9
Soule JD, Soule DF (1975) Spathipora , its anatomy and phylogenetic
affi nities. In: Pouyet S (ed) Bryozoa 1974. Doc Lab Geol Fac Sci
Lyon, HS 3(1):247–253
Soule JD, Soule DF (1976) Spathipora mazatlanica , a new species of
burrowing Bryozoa (Ctenostomata) from Mazatlan, Sinaloa,
Mexico. Bull South Calif Acad Sci 75(1):38–42
3 Evolution of Reproductive Patterns in Cheilostomata
Reynolds JD, Goodwin NB, Freckleton RP (2002) Evolutionary
transitions in parental care and live bearing in vertebrates. Proc R
Soc B 357:269–281
Reznick DN, Mateos M, Springer MS (2002) Independent origins and
rapid evolution of the placenta in the fi sh genus Poeciliopsis .
Science 298:1018–1020
Reznick D, Meredith R, Collette BB (2007a) Independent evolution of
complex life history adaptations in two families of fi shes, livebearing halfbeaks (Zenarchopteridae, Beloniformes) and Poeciliidae
(Cyprinodontiformes). Evolution 61:2570–2583
Reznick D, Hrbek T, Caura S, De Greef J, Roff D (2007b) Life history
of Xenodexia ctenolepis : implications for life history evolution in
the family Poeciliidae. Biol J Linn Soc 92:77–85
Richard PE, Dietz TH, Silverman H (1991) Structure of the gill during
reproduction in the unionids Anodonta grandis , Ligumia subrostrata ,
and Carunculina parva texasensis . Can J Zool 69:1744–1754
Rigby S, Milsom CV (2003) Zooplankton. In: Briggs DEG, Crowther P
(eds) Palaeobiology II. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, pp 451–454
Ross JPR, McCain KW (1976) Schizoporella unicornis (Ectoprocta) in
coastal waters of northwestern United States and Canada. Northwest
Sci 50(3):160–171
Ross JRP, Ross CA (1996) Bryozoan evolution and dispersal and
Paleozoic sea-level fl uctuations. In: Gordon DP, Smith AM, GrantMackie JA (eds) Bryozoans in space and time. National Institute of
Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, pp 243–258
Rothchild I (2003) The yolkless egg and the evolution of eutherian
viviparity. Biol Reprod 68:337–357
Ryland JS (1963) Systematic and biological studies on Polyzoa
(Bryozoa) from western Norway. Sarsia 14:1–59
Ryland JS (1965) Polyzoa (Bryozoa). Order Cheilostomata.
Cyphonautes larvae. Conseil international pour l’exploration de la
mer. Zooplankton 107:1–6
Ryland JS (1967) Polyzoa. Oceanogr Mar Biol 5:343–369
Ryland JS (1974) Behaviour, settlement and metamorphosis of bryozoan larvae: a review. Thalassia Jugoslav 10(1/2):239–262
Ryland JS (1976) Physiology and ecology of marine bryozoans. In:
Russell FS, Yonge CM (eds) Adv Mar Biol 14:285–443
Ryland JS (2001) Convergent colonial organization and reproductive
function in two bryozoan species epizoic on gastropod shells. J Nat
Hist 35:1085–1101
Ryland JS, Bishop JDD (1993) Internal fertilization in hermaphroditic
colonial invertebrates. Oceanogr Mar Biol 31:445–477
Ryland JS, Porter JS (2006) The identifi cation, distribution and biology
of encrusting species of Alcyonidium (Bryozoa: Ctenostomatida)
around the coasts of Ireland. Proc R Irish Acad 106B(1):19–33
Santagata S, Banta WC (1996) Origin of brooding and ovicells in cheilostome bryozoans: interpretive morphology of Scrupocellaria
ferox . Invert Biol 115(2):170–180
Saunders MI, Metaxas A (2010) Physical forcing of distributions of
bryozoan cyphonautes larvae in a coastal embeyment. Mar Ecol
Prog Ser 418:131–145
Schäfer P (1991) Brutkammern der Stenolaemata (Bryozoa):
Konstructionsmorphologie und phylogenetische Bedeutung. Cour
Forsch Senck 136:1–263
Schmalhausen II (1949) Factors of evolution: the theory of stabilizing
selection. Blackiston, Philadelphia
Schmalhausen II (1982) Organism as a whole in its individual and historical development. Mir, Moscow [in Russian]
Schwartz ML, Dimock RV (2001) Ultrastructural evidence for nutritional exchange between brooding unionid mussels and their glochidia larvae. Invert Biol 120:227–236
Seed R, Hughes RN (1992) Reproductive strategies of epialgal bryozoans. Invert Reprod Dev 22(1–3):291–300
Sellmer GP (1967) Functional morphology and ecological life history
of the gem clam, Gemma gemma (Eulamellibranchia: Veneridae).
Malacologia 5:137–223
Sepkoski JJ, McKinney FK, Lidgard S (2000) Competitive displacement among post-Paleozoic cyclostome and cheilostome bryozoans. Paleobiology 26(1):7–18
Shanks AL (1995) Mechanisms of cross-shelf dispersal of larval
invertebrates and fi sh. In: McEdwards L (ed) Ecology of marine
invertebrate larvae. CRC Press, Boca Raton/London/New York/
Washington, DC, pp 323–367
Shine R (1978) Propagule size and parental care: the “safe harbor”
hypothesis. J Theor Biol 75:417–424
Shine R (1989) Alternative models for the evolution of offspring size.
Am Nat 134:311–317
Shine R, Lee MSY (1999) A reanalysis of the evolution of viviparity
and egg-guarding in squamate reptiles. Herpetologica 55:538–549
Shunatova NN, Ostrovsky AN (2001) Individual autozooidal behaviour
and feeding in marine bryozoans. Sarsia 86:113–142
Shunatova NN, Ostrovsky AN (2002) Group behaviour and chimneys
in marine bryozoans. Mar Biol 140(3):503–518
Silbermann S (1906) Untersuchungen über den feineren Bau von
Alcyonidium mytili . Arch Nat 72:265–308
Silén L (1944) The anatomy of Labiostomella gisleni Silén (Bryozoa
Protocheilostomata). Kongl Svenska Vetensk-Akad Handl, Ser 3,
21:1–111
Silén L (1945) The main features of the development of the ovum,
embryo and ooecium in the ooecioferous Bryozoa Gymnolaemata.
Ark Zool 35A(17):1–34
Silén L (1947) On the anatomy and biology of Penetrantiidae and
Immergentiidae (Bryozoa). Ark Zool 40A(4):1–48
Silén L (1954) Developmental biology of Phoronidea of the Gullmar
Fiord area (west coast of Sweden). Acta Zool 35(3):215–257
Silén L (1966) On the fertilization problem in gymnolaematous
Bryozoa. Ophelia 3:113–140
Silén L (1977) Polymorphism. In: Woollacott RM, Zimmer RL (eds)
Biology of bryozoans. Academic Press, New York, pp 184–232
Silva IP, Sliter WV (1999) Cretaceous paleoceanography: evidence
from planctonic foraminiferal evolution. In: Barrera E, Johnston CC
(eds) Evolution of the Cretaceous ocean-climate system. Geological
Society of America, Boulder, pp 301–328
Sinervo B, McEdward LR (1988) Developmental consequences of an
evolutionary change in egg size: an experimental test. Evolution
42(5):885–899
Skelton PW (2003) Survey of the Cretaceous world. In: Skelton PW
(ed) The Cretaceous world. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp 9–41
Smith CC, Fretwell SD (1974) The optimal balance between size and
number of offspring. Am Nat 108(962):499–506
Smith DG, Werle SF, Klekowski EJ (2003) The anatomy and brooding
biology of Pottsiella erecta (Potts, 1884) (Ectoprocta:
Gymnolaemata: Ctenostomata) with an expanded diagnosis of the
Pottsiellidae. Hydrobiologia 490:135–145
Smitt FA (1865) Om Hafs-Bryozoernas utveckling och fettkroppar.
Ofvers Kongl Vetensk Akad Forh 1:5–50
Soule JD (1950a) A new species of Terebripora from the Pacifi c (Bryozoa
Ctenostomata). J Wash Acad Sci 40(11):378–381
Soule JD (1950b) Penetrantiidae and Immergentiidae from the Pacifi c
(Bryozoa: Ctenostomata). T Am Microsc Soc 69(4):359–367
Soule JD, Soule DF (1969a) Systematics and biogeography of burrowing bryozoans. Am Zool 9(3):791–802
Soule JD, Soule DF (1969b) Three new species of burrowing bryozoans
(Ectoprocta) from the Hawaiian Islands. Occas Pap Calif Acad Sci
78:1–9
Soule JD, Soule DF (1975) Spathipora , its anatomy and phylogenetic
affi nities. In: Pouyet S (ed) Bryozoa 1974. Doc Lab Geol Fac Sci
Lyon, HS 3(1):247–253
Soule JD, Soule DF (1976) Spathipora mazatlanica , a new species of
burrowing Bryozoa (Ctenostomata) from Mazatlan, Sinaloa,
Mexico. Bull South Calif Acad Sci 75(1):38–42
3 Evolution of Reproductive Patterns in Cheilostomata