xxviii
Lidgard S, Carter MC, Dick MH, Gordon DP, Ostrovsky AN (2012) Division of labor and recurrent evolution
of polymorphisms in a group of colonial animals. Evol Ecol 26(2):233–257
Littlewood DTJ, Telford MJ, Clough KA, Rohde K (1998) Gnathostomulida – an enigmatic metazoan phylum
from both morphological and molecular perspectives. Mol Phylogenet Evol 9(1):72–79
Lüter C, Bartolomaeus T (1997) The phylogenetic position of Brachiopoda – a comparison of morphological
and molecular data. Zool Scr 26:245–254
MacArthur RH, Wilson EO (1967) The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Mackey LY, Winnepenninckx B, De Wachter R, Backeljau T, Emschermann P, Garey JR (1996) 18S rRNA
suggests that Entoprocta are protostomes, unrelated to Ectoprocta. J Mol Evol 42:552–559
Macleod N, Rawson PF, Forey PL, Banner FT, Boudagher-Fadel MK, Bown PR, Burnett JA, Chambers P,
Culver S, Evans SE, Jeffery C, Kaminski MA, Lord AR, Milner AC, Milner AR, Morris N, Owen E, Rosen
BR, Smith AB, Taylor PD, Urquhart E, Young JR (1997) The Cretaceous-Tertiary biotic transition. J Geol
Soc Lond 154:265–292
Malakhov VV (1995) Problem of Bauplan of brachiopods and their position in a system of animal kingdom. In:
Current state and main directions of the study on brachiopods. Paleontological Institute of the Russian
Academy of Sciences, Moscow, pp 51–82 [in Russian]
Malakhov VV (2004) New ideas on the origin of Bilateria (Application of the method of evolutionary tetrad).
Fundamental zoological studies. Theory and methods. In: Readings devoted to 170th anniversary of the
Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. KMK Press, Moscow/St Petersburg, pp 89–113
[in Russian]
Mallatt J, Craig CW, Yoder MJ (2010) Nearly complete rRNA genes assembled from across the metazoan
animals: effects of more taxa, a structure-based alignment, and paired-sites evolutionary models on phylogeny reconstruction. Mol Phylogenet Evol 55:1–17
Mallatt J, Craig CW, Yoder MJ (2012) Nearly complete rRNA genes from 371 Animalia: updated structurebased alignment and detailed phylogenetic analysis. Mol Phylogenet Evol 64(3):603–617
Marcus E (1924) Zur vergleichenden Embryologie der Bryozoen. Mitt Zool Mus Ber 11:155–166
Marcus E (1958) On the evolution of the animal phyla. Quart Rev Biol 33(1):24–58
McEdward LR (ed) (1995) Ecology of marine invertebrate larvae . CRC Press, Boca Raton/London/New York/
Washington, DC
McKinney FK (1987) Paleobiological interpretation of some skeletal characters of Lower Devonian fenestrate
Bryozoa, Prague Bassin, Czechoslovakia. In: Ross JRP (ed) Bryozoa: present and past. Western Washington
University, Billingham, pp 161–168
McKinney FK, Jackson JDC (1989) Bryozoan evolution. Unwin Hyman, Boston
McKinney FK, Lidgard S, Sepkoski JJ, Taylor PD (1998) Decoupled temporal patterns of evolution and ecology in two post-paleozoic clades. Science 281:807–809
McKinney FK, Lidgard S, Taylor PD (2001) Macroevolutionary trends: perception depends on the measure
used. In: Jackson JBC, Lidgard S, McKinney FK (eds) Evolutionary patterns. Growth, form, and tempo in
evolution. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago/London, pp 348–385
McKinney FK, Taylor PD (2001) Bryozoan generic extinctions and originations during the last one hundred
million years. Palaeontol Electron 4(1):1–26
Meglitsch PA, Schram FR (1991) Invertebrate zoology, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford/New York
Mileikovsky SA (1971) Types of larval development in marine bottom invertebrates, their distribution and
ecological signifi cance: a re-evaluation. Mar Biol 10:193–213
Morozova IP (2001) Bryozoans of the order Fenestellida. Proc Paleontol Inst Russ Acad Sci 277:1–177 [in
Russian with English summary]
Mukai H, Terakado K, Reed CG (1997) Bryozoa. In: Harrison FW (ed) Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates,
vol 13. Wiley-Liss, New York, pp 45–206
Mundy SP, Taylor PD, Thorpe JP (1981) A reinterpretation of phylactolaemate phylogeny. In: Larwood GP,
Nielsen C (eds) Recent and fossil Bryozoa. Olsen and Olsen, Fredensborg, pp 185–190
Nesnidal MP, Helmkampf M, Bruchhaus I, Hausdorf B (2011) The complete mitochondrial genome of
Flustra foliacea (Ectoprocta, Cheilostomata)–compositional bias affects phylogenetic analyses of lophotrochozoan relationships. BMC Genomics 12(1):572
Nielsen C (1971) Entoproct life-cycles and the entoproct/ectoproct relationship. Ophelia 9:209–341
Nielsen C (1977) Phylogenetic considerations: the protostomian relationships. In: Woollacott RM, Zimmer RL
(eds) Biology of bryozoans. Academic Press, New York, pp 519–534
Nielsen C (1995) Animal evolution: interrelationships of the living phyla. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Nielsen C (1998) Origin and evolution of animal life cycles. Biol Rev73:125–155
Nielsen C (2001) Animal evolution: interrelationships of the living phyla, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press,
Oxford
Nielsen C (2002a) The phylogenetic position of Entoprocta, Ectoprocta, Phoronida, and Brachiopoda. Integr
Comp Biol 42:685–691
Nielsen C (2002b) Protostome-deuterostome origins. In: Pagel M (ed) Encyclopedia of evolution, vol 2. Oxford
University Press, Oxford, pp 961–963
Nielsen C (2008) Six major steps in animal evolution: are we derived sponge larvae? Evol Dev 10:241–257
Nielsen C (2012) Animal evolution: interrelationships of the living phyla, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press,
Oxford
Introduction
Lidgard S, Carter MC, Dick MH, Gordon DP, Ostrovsky AN (2012) Division of labor and recurrent evolution
of polymorphisms in a group of colonial animals. Evol Ecol 26(2):233–257
Littlewood DTJ, Telford MJ, Clough KA, Rohde K (1998) Gnathostomulida – an enigmatic metazoan phylum
from both morphological and molecular perspectives. Mol Phylogenet Evol 9(1):72–79
Lüter C, Bartolomaeus T (1997) The phylogenetic position of Brachiopoda – a comparison of morphological
and molecular data. Zool Scr 26:245–254
MacArthur RH, Wilson EO (1967) The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Mackey LY, Winnepenninckx B, De Wachter R, Backeljau T, Emschermann P, Garey JR (1996) 18S rRNA
suggests that Entoprocta are protostomes, unrelated to Ectoprocta. J Mol Evol 42:552–559
Macleod N, Rawson PF, Forey PL, Banner FT, Boudagher-Fadel MK, Bown PR, Burnett JA, Chambers P,
Culver S, Evans SE, Jeffery C, Kaminski MA, Lord AR, Milner AC, Milner AR, Morris N, Owen E, Rosen
BR, Smith AB, Taylor PD, Urquhart E, Young JR (1997) The Cretaceous-Tertiary biotic transition. J Geol
Soc Lond 154:265–292
Malakhov VV (1995) Problem of Bauplan of brachiopods and their position in a system of animal kingdom. In:
Current state and main directions of the study on brachiopods. Paleontological Institute of the Russian
Academy of Sciences, Moscow, pp 51–82 [in Russian]
Malakhov VV (2004) New ideas on the origin of Bilateria (Application of the method of evolutionary tetrad).
Fundamental zoological studies. Theory and methods. In: Readings devoted to 170th anniversary of the
Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. KMK Press, Moscow/St Petersburg, pp 89–113
[in Russian]
Mallatt J, Craig CW, Yoder MJ (2010) Nearly complete rRNA genes assembled from across the metazoan
animals: effects of more taxa, a structure-based alignment, and paired-sites evolutionary models on phylogeny reconstruction. Mol Phylogenet Evol 55:1–17
Mallatt J, Craig CW, Yoder MJ (2012) Nearly complete rRNA genes from 371 Animalia: updated structurebased alignment and detailed phylogenetic analysis. Mol Phylogenet Evol 64(3):603–617
Marcus E (1924) Zur vergleichenden Embryologie der Bryozoen. Mitt Zool Mus Ber 11:155–166
Marcus E (1958) On the evolution of the animal phyla. Quart Rev Biol 33(1):24–58
McEdward LR (ed) (1995) Ecology of marine invertebrate larvae . CRC Press, Boca Raton/London/New York/
Washington, DC
McKinney FK (1987) Paleobiological interpretation of some skeletal characters of Lower Devonian fenestrate
Bryozoa, Prague Bassin, Czechoslovakia. In: Ross JRP (ed) Bryozoa: present and past. Western Washington
University, Billingham, pp 161–168
McKinney FK, Jackson JDC (1989) Bryozoan evolution. Unwin Hyman, Boston
McKinney FK, Lidgard S, Sepkoski JJ, Taylor PD (1998) Decoupled temporal patterns of evolution and ecology in two post-paleozoic clades. Science 281:807–809
McKinney FK, Lidgard S, Taylor PD (2001) Macroevolutionary trends: perception depends on the measure
used. In: Jackson JBC, Lidgard S, McKinney FK (eds) Evolutionary patterns. Growth, form, and tempo in
evolution. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago/London, pp 348–385
McKinney FK, Taylor PD (2001) Bryozoan generic extinctions and originations during the last one hundred
million years. Palaeontol Electron 4(1):1–26
Meglitsch PA, Schram FR (1991) Invertebrate zoology, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford/New York
Mileikovsky SA (1971) Types of larval development in marine bottom invertebrates, their distribution and
ecological signifi cance: a re-evaluation. Mar Biol 10:193–213
Morozova IP (2001) Bryozoans of the order Fenestellida. Proc Paleontol Inst Russ Acad Sci 277:1–177 [in
Russian with English summary]
Mukai H, Terakado K, Reed CG (1997) Bryozoa. In: Harrison FW (ed) Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates,
vol 13. Wiley-Liss, New York, pp 45–206
Mundy SP, Taylor PD, Thorpe JP (1981) A reinterpretation of phylactolaemate phylogeny. In: Larwood GP,
Nielsen C (eds) Recent and fossil Bryozoa. Olsen and Olsen, Fredensborg, pp 185–190
Nesnidal MP, Helmkampf M, Bruchhaus I, Hausdorf B (2011) The complete mitochondrial genome of
Flustra foliacea (Ectoprocta, Cheilostomata)–compositional bias affects phylogenetic analyses of lophotrochozoan relationships. BMC Genomics 12(1):572
Nielsen C (1971) Entoproct life-cycles and the entoproct/ectoproct relationship. Ophelia 9:209–341
Nielsen C (1977) Phylogenetic considerations: the protostomian relationships. In: Woollacott RM, Zimmer RL
(eds) Biology of bryozoans. Academic Press, New York, pp 519–534
Nielsen C (1995) Animal evolution: interrelationships of the living phyla. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Nielsen C (1998) Origin and evolution of animal life cycles. Biol Rev73:125–155
Nielsen C (2001) Animal evolution: interrelationships of the living phyla, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press,
Oxford
Nielsen C (2002a) The phylogenetic position of Entoprocta, Ectoprocta, Phoronida, and Brachiopoda. Integr
Comp Biol 42:685–691
Nielsen C (2002b) Protostome-deuterostome origins. In: Pagel M (ed) Encyclopedia of evolution, vol 2. Oxford
University Press, Oxford, pp 961–963
Nielsen C (2008) Six major steps in animal evolution: are we derived sponge larvae? Evol Dev 10:241–257
Nielsen C (2012) Animal evolution: interrelationships of the living phyla, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press,
Oxford
Introduction