Chapter 22 Predation in Seagrass Beds
547
remain understudied and offer great promise include
analyses of predator and prey behavior during encounters, further assessment of the relative effects
of top-down control of seagrass ecosystem structure
and function, and increased understanding of positive interactions between seagrasses and their animal
associates. Landscape level and regional issues such
as gap dynamics, habitat connectivity (corridors), alternative habitats and habitat fragmentation should
also figure prominently in future studies, especially
with larger predators that forage over large areas.
In addition, there is a need to evaluate the influence
of waves and currents in altering the structure and
complexity of the meadow, and whether this affects
relationships between prey and predators. Lastly, efforts by conservationists to restore large predators
to their prior abundances could produce many unanticipated changes in marine ecosystems (Peterson
and Lipcius, 2003), and the increasing number of
marine protected areas (MPAs) provides unparalleled opportunities for testing the direct and indirect effects of large predator abundance on the faunal and floral components of seagrass meadows (cf.
Valentine and Heck, in press).
References
Barnes PAG and Hickman CS (1999) Lucinid bivalves and marine angiosperms: A search for causal relationships. In: Walker
DI and Wells FE (eds) The Seagrass Flora and Fauna of Rottnest Island, pp 215–238. Western Australia, Western Australian Museum, Perth
Bartholomew A, Diaz RJ and Cicchetti G (2000) New dimensionless indices of structural habitat complexity: Predicted and
actual effects on a predator’s foraging success. Mar Ecol Prog
Ser 206: 45–58
Beck MW, Heck KL Jr, Able KW, Childers DL Eggleston DB,
Gillanders BM, Halpern B, Hays CG, Hoshino K, Minello TJ,
Orth RJ, Sheridan PF and Weinstein MP (2001) The identification, conservation, and management of estuarine and marine
nurseries for fish and invertebrates. Bioscience 51(8): 633–641
Bell S, Brooks RA Ellis WE (2003) Structural spacing and
the determination of habitat complexity: The index of
Bartholomew et al. (2000) index. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 248:
293–295
Bertness MD, Garrity SD and Levings SC (1981) Predation pressure and gastropods foraging: A tropical–temperate comparison. Evolution 35: 995–1007
Blundon JA and Kennedy VS (1982) Refuges for infaunal bivalves from blue crab, Callinectes sapidus (Rathbun), predation in Chesapeake Bay. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 65: 67–81
Bologna PAX and Heck KL Jr (1999) Differential predation and
growth rates of bay scallops within a seagrass habitat. J Exp
Mar Biol 239: 299–314
Borum J (1987) Dynamics of epiphyton on eelgrass (Zostera
marina) leaves: Relative roles of algal growth, herbivory and
substratum turnover. Limnol Oceanogr 32: 986–992
Bostr¨ om C and Bonsdorff E (1997) Community structure and
spatial variation of benthic invertebrates associated with
Zostera marina L. beds in the northern Baltic Sea. J Sea Res
37: 153–166
Bretsky SS (1978) Marine grass banks—a possible explanation
for carbonate lenses, Pierre shale (Cretaceous) Colorado. J
Sedimentary Petrol 48: 999–1000
Bricker SB, Clement CG, Pirhalla DE, Orlando SP and Farrow DRG (1999) National Estuarine Eutrophication assessment: Effects of Nutrient Enrichment in the Nation’s Estuaries.
NOAA, National Ocean Service, Special Projects Office and
the National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, p 71. Silver
Spring, Maryland
Caine EA (1980) Ecology of two littoral species of caprellid
amphipods (Crustacea) from Washington, USA. Mar Biol 56:
327–335
Cambridge ML and McComb AJ (1984) The loss of seagrasses
in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. I. The time course
and magnitude of seagrass decline in relation to industrial
development. Aquat Bot 20: 229–243
Carlson PR, Yarbro LA and Barber TR (1994) Relationship
of sediment sulfide to mortality of Thalassia testudinum in
Florida Bay. Bull Mar Sci 54(3): 733–746
Coen LD and Heck KL Jr (1991) The interacting effects of siphon
nipping and habitat on bivalve [Mercenaria mercenaria (L.)]
growth in a subtropical seagrass (Halodule wrightii Uschers)
meadow. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 45: 1–13
Crowder LB and Cooper WE (1979) The effects of macrophyte
removal on the feeding efficiency and growth of sunfishes: evidence from pond studies. In: Breck JE, Prentki RT and Loucks
OL (eds) Aquatic Plants, Lake Management and Ecosystem
Consequences of Lake Harvesting, pp 251–268. University
of Wisconsin, Institute for Environmental Studies, Madison,
Wisconsin
Dayton PK, Tegner MJ, Edwards PB and Riser KL (1998) Sliding baselines, ghosts, and reduced expectations in kelp forest
communities. Ecol Appl 8: 309–322
Den Hartog C (1994) Suffocation of a littoral Zostera bed by
Enteromorpha radiata. Aquat Bot 27: 3–14
Duarte CM (1995) Submerged aquatic vegetation in relation to
different nutrient regimes. Ophelia 41: 37–112
Duffy JE and Hay ME (2001) Ecology and evolution of marine
consumer–prey interactions. In: Bertness MD, Hay ME and
Gaines SD (eds) Marine Community Ecology, pp 131–158.
Sinauer Associates Sunderland, Massachusetts
Edgar GJ (1990) The influence of plant structure on species richness, biomass and secondary production of macrofaunal assemblages associated with Western Australian seagrass beds.
J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 37: 215–240
Edgar GJ and Shaw G (1995) The production and trophic
ecology of shallow water fish assemblages in southern Australia. III. General relationships between sediments, seagrasses, invertebrates and fish. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 194: 107–
131
Fisher CR (1990) Chemoautotrophic and methanotrophic symbioses in marine invertebrates. Aquat Sci 2: 339–436
Forward RB Jr, DeVries MC, Rittschof D, Frankel DAZ, Bischoff
JP, Fisher CM and Welch JM (1996) Effects of environmental
547
remain understudied and offer great promise include
analyses of predator and prey behavior during encounters, further assessment of the relative effects
of top-down control of seagrass ecosystem structure
and function, and increased understanding of positive interactions between seagrasses and their animal
associates. Landscape level and regional issues such
as gap dynamics, habitat connectivity (corridors), alternative habitats and habitat fragmentation should
also figure prominently in future studies, especially
with larger predators that forage over large areas.
In addition, there is a need to evaluate the influence
of waves and currents in altering the structure and
complexity of the meadow, and whether this affects
relationships between prey and predators. Lastly, efforts by conservationists to restore large predators
to their prior abundances could produce many unanticipated changes in marine ecosystems (Peterson
and Lipcius, 2003), and the increasing number of
marine protected areas (MPAs) provides unparalleled opportunities for testing the direct and indirect effects of large predator abundance on the faunal and floral components of seagrass meadows (cf.
Valentine and Heck, in press).
References
Barnes PAG and Hickman CS (1999) Lucinid bivalves and marine angiosperms: A search for causal relationships. In: Walker
DI and Wells FE (eds) The Seagrass Flora and Fauna of Rottnest Island, pp 215–238. Western Australia, Western Australian Museum, Perth
Bartholomew A, Diaz RJ and Cicchetti G (2000) New dimensionless indices of structural habitat complexity: Predicted and
actual effects on a predator’s foraging success. Mar Ecol Prog
Ser 206: 45–58
Beck MW, Heck KL Jr, Able KW, Childers DL Eggleston DB,
Gillanders BM, Halpern B, Hays CG, Hoshino K, Minello TJ,
Orth RJ, Sheridan PF and Weinstein MP (2001) The identification, conservation, and management of estuarine and marine
nurseries for fish and invertebrates. Bioscience 51(8): 633–641
Bell S, Brooks RA Ellis WE (2003) Structural spacing and
the determination of habitat complexity: The index of
Bartholomew et al. (2000) index. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 248:
293–295
Bertness MD, Garrity SD and Levings SC (1981) Predation pressure and gastropods foraging: A tropical–temperate comparison. Evolution 35: 995–1007
Blundon JA and Kennedy VS (1982) Refuges for infaunal bivalves from blue crab, Callinectes sapidus (Rathbun), predation in Chesapeake Bay. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 65: 67–81
Bologna PAX and Heck KL Jr (1999) Differential predation and
growth rates of bay scallops within a seagrass habitat. J Exp
Mar Biol 239: 299–314
Borum J (1987) Dynamics of epiphyton on eelgrass (Zostera
marina) leaves: Relative roles of algal growth, herbivory and
substratum turnover. Limnol Oceanogr 32: 986–992
Bostr¨ om C and Bonsdorff E (1997) Community structure and
spatial variation of benthic invertebrates associated with
Zostera marina L. beds in the northern Baltic Sea. J Sea Res
37: 153–166
Bretsky SS (1978) Marine grass banks—a possible explanation
for carbonate lenses, Pierre shale (Cretaceous) Colorado. J
Sedimentary Petrol 48: 999–1000
Bricker SB, Clement CG, Pirhalla DE, Orlando SP and Farrow DRG (1999) National Estuarine Eutrophication assessment: Effects of Nutrient Enrichment in the Nation’s Estuaries.
NOAA, National Ocean Service, Special Projects Office and
the National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, p 71. Silver
Spring, Maryland
Caine EA (1980) Ecology of two littoral species of caprellid
amphipods (Crustacea) from Washington, USA. Mar Biol 56:
327–335
Cambridge ML and McComb AJ (1984) The loss of seagrasses
in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. I. The time course
and magnitude of seagrass decline in relation to industrial
development. Aquat Bot 20: 229–243
Carlson PR, Yarbro LA and Barber TR (1994) Relationship
of sediment sulfide to mortality of Thalassia testudinum in
Florida Bay. Bull Mar Sci 54(3): 733–746
Coen LD and Heck KL Jr (1991) The interacting effects of siphon
nipping and habitat on bivalve [Mercenaria mercenaria (L.)]
growth in a subtropical seagrass (Halodule wrightii Uschers)
meadow. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 45: 1–13
Crowder LB and Cooper WE (1979) The effects of macrophyte
removal on the feeding efficiency and growth of sunfishes: evidence from pond studies. In: Breck JE, Prentki RT and Loucks
OL (eds) Aquatic Plants, Lake Management and Ecosystem
Consequences of Lake Harvesting, pp 251–268. University
of Wisconsin, Institute for Environmental Studies, Madison,
Wisconsin
Dayton PK, Tegner MJ, Edwards PB and Riser KL (1998) Sliding baselines, ghosts, and reduced expectations in kelp forest
communities. Ecol Appl 8: 309–322
Den Hartog C (1994) Suffocation of a littoral Zostera bed by
Enteromorpha radiata. Aquat Bot 27: 3–14
Duarte CM (1995) Submerged aquatic vegetation in relation to
different nutrient regimes. Ophelia 41: 37–112
Duffy JE and Hay ME (2001) Ecology and evolution of marine
consumer–prey interactions. In: Bertness MD, Hay ME and
Gaines SD (eds) Marine Community Ecology, pp 131–158.
Sinauer Associates Sunderland, Massachusetts
Edgar GJ (1990) The influence of plant structure on species richness, biomass and secondary production of macrofaunal assemblages associated with Western Australian seagrass beds.
J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 37: 215–240
Edgar GJ and Shaw G (1995) The production and trophic
ecology of shallow water fish assemblages in southern Australia. III. General relationships between sediments, seagrasses, invertebrates and fish. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 194: 107–
131
Fisher CR (1990) Chemoautotrophic and methanotrophic symbioses in marine invertebrates. Aquat Sci 2: 339–436
Forward RB Jr, DeVries MC, Rittschof D, Frankel DAZ, Bischoff
JP, Fisher CM and Welch JM (1996) Effects of environmental