378
Kenneth A. Moore and Frederick T. Short
natural beds. Successfully used planting methods for
Z. marina include TERFS (Transplanting Eelgrass
Remotely with Frame Systems, Short et al., 2002b),
the use of simple un-anchored (Orth et al., 1999) or
anchored shoots (Davis and Short, 1997), and seeding by hand (Harwell and Orth, 1999) or by machine (Granger et al., 2000). Determining success of
Zostera restoration requires rigor and demonstrated
replacement of habitat function for mitigation vs.
observed persistence of the planted area for community activities. The importance of restoration science to the success of community based restoration
and compensatory mitigation is clear, but the success of any efforts to transplant or seed new Zostera
populations will depend on adequate water quality
conditions being re-established.
V. Future Research Needs
The genus Zostera has received much attention in all
aspects of scientific investigation, resulting in part
from its distribution in the temperate, developed areas of high human populations and academic focus.
Particularly Z. marina has a tremendous body of research on its ecology, distribution, and physiology.
The other eight Zostera species are now receiving
more attention, but our understanding of their ecology and physiology is far from complete. As our
knowledge base of these species increases, broader
comparisons can be made that will help to improve
management of each.
Despite extensive work in other areas, little is
known of the genetics of Z. marina, and, surprisingly, genetic investigations of other species are often more advanced. Such investigations, especially
of the perennial and annual forms of Z. marina, along
with further studies of field ecology and distribution,
will in time yield a better knowledge of the genus
Zostera and its evolution.
Assessment and monitoring of the distribution of
all Zostera species is needed to document the losses
that are occurring and to provide support to reverse
these declines and restore these seagrass beds. In
many parts of the world, Zostera beds are being lost
due to reduced water clarity and direct human impacts even before documentation of their existence
has been made. Monitoring requires long-term consistent effort but yields valuable information on incremental changes that otherwise may escape perception. Other losses related to the wasting disease
have occurred and are continuing to occur in Z. marina and other Zostera species. The extent and etiology of wasting disease and its relation to the ecology
of Zostera needs more investigation.
Zostera has been shown to have potential as an indicator of estuarine and coastal system health. More
work is needed to refine existing, and develop new,
environmental indicators involving Zostera. Beyond
additional research, greater efforts are needed to increase public awareness of the importance of Zostera
populations and the critical role they play in the ecology of coastal oceans and in their contribution to
fisheries resources.
References
Abal EG and Dennison WC (1996) Seagrass depth range and
water quality in southern Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia.
Mar Freshwater Res 47: 1323–1650
Abal EG, Loneragan N, Bowen P, Perry CJ, Udy JW and
Dennison WC (1994) Physiological and morphological responses of the seagrass Zostera capricorni Aschers. to light
intensity. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 178: 113–129
Adamowics SC (1994) Eelgrass Transplant Project: Brushneck
and Buttonwoods Coves, Greenwich Bay. Report to the RI
DEM/Narragansett Bay Project, p 19
Adams JB and Bate GC (1994) The ecological implications of
tolerance to salinity by Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grande and
Zostera capensis Setchell. Botanica Marina 37: 449–456
Aioi K, Komatsu T and Morita K (1998) The world’s longest
seagrass, Zostera caulescens from northeastern Japan. Aquat
Bot 61: 87–93
Aioi K and Nakaoka M (2003) The seagrasses of Japan. In: Green
EP and Short FT (eds) World Atlas of Seagrasses, pp 185–192.
University of California Press, Berkeley
Arasaki M (1950) The ecology of amamo (Zostera marina) and
koamamo (Zostera nana). Bull Jpn Soc Sci Fish 15: 567–572
Armiger LC (1964) An occurrence of Labyrinthula in New
Zealand Zostera. NZ J Bot 2: 3–9
Backman TW and Barilotti DC (1976) Irradiance reduction: Effects on standing crops of the eelgrass Zostera marina in a
coastal lagoon. Mar Biol 34: 33–40
Baldwin JR and Lovvorn JR (1994a) Expansion of seagrass habitat by the exotic Zostera japonica, and its use by dabbling
ducks and brant in boundary Bay, British Columbia. Mar Ecol
Prog Ser 103: 119–127
Baldwin JR and Lovvorn JR (1994b) Habitats and tidal accessibility of the marine foods of dabbling ducks and brant in
Boundary Bay, British Columbia. Mar Biol 120: 627–638
Bandeira SO (2002) Diversity and distribution of seagrasses
around Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. S Afr J Bot 68:
191–198
Bandeira SO and Gell F (2003) The seagrasses of Mozambique and Southeastern Africa. In: Green EP and Short FT
(eds) World Atlas of Seagrasses, pp 93–100. University of
California Press, Berkeley
Kenneth A. Moore and Frederick T. Short
natural beds. Successfully used planting methods for
Z. marina include TERFS (Transplanting Eelgrass
Remotely with Frame Systems, Short et al., 2002b),
the use of simple un-anchored (Orth et al., 1999) or
anchored shoots (Davis and Short, 1997), and seeding by hand (Harwell and Orth, 1999) or by machine (Granger et al., 2000). Determining success of
Zostera restoration requires rigor and demonstrated
replacement of habitat function for mitigation vs.
observed persistence of the planted area for community activities. The importance of restoration science to the success of community based restoration
and compensatory mitigation is clear, but the success of any efforts to transplant or seed new Zostera
populations will depend on adequate water quality
conditions being re-established.
V. Future Research Needs
The genus Zostera has received much attention in all
aspects of scientific investigation, resulting in part
from its distribution in the temperate, developed areas of high human populations and academic focus.
Particularly Z. marina has a tremendous body of research on its ecology, distribution, and physiology.
The other eight Zostera species are now receiving
more attention, but our understanding of their ecology and physiology is far from complete. As our
knowledge base of these species increases, broader
comparisons can be made that will help to improve
management of each.
Despite extensive work in other areas, little is
known of the genetics of Z. marina, and, surprisingly, genetic investigations of other species are often more advanced. Such investigations, especially
of the perennial and annual forms of Z. marina, along
with further studies of field ecology and distribution,
will in time yield a better knowledge of the genus
Zostera and its evolution.
Assessment and monitoring of the distribution of
all Zostera species is needed to document the losses
that are occurring and to provide support to reverse
these declines and restore these seagrass beds. In
many parts of the world, Zostera beds are being lost
due to reduced water clarity and direct human impacts even before documentation of their existence
has been made. Monitoring requires long-term consistent effort but yields valuable information on incremental changes that otherwise may escape perception. Other losses related to the wasting disease
have occurred and are continuing to occur in Z. marina and other Zostera species. The extent and etiology of wasting disease and its relation to the ecology
of Zostera needs more investigation.
Zostera has been shown to have potential as an indicator of estuarine and coastal system health. More
work is needed to refine existing, and develop new,
environmental indicators involving Zostera. Beyond
additional research, greater efforts are needed to increase public awareness of the importance of Zostera
populations and the critical role they play in the ecology of coastal oceans and in their contribution to
fisheries resources.
References
Abal EG and Dennison WC (1996) Seagrass depth range and
water quality in southern Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia.
Mar Freshwater Res 47: 1323–1650
Abal EG, Loneragan N, Bowen P, Perry CJ, Udy JW and
Dennison WC (1994) Physiological and morphological responses of the seagrass Zostera capricorni Aschers. to light
intensity. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 178: 113–129
Adamowics SC (1994) Eelgrass Transplant Project: Brushneck
and Buttonwoods Coves, Greenwich Bay. Report to the RI
DEM/Narragansett Bay Project, p 19
Adams JB and Bate GC (1994) The ecological implications of
tolerance to salinity by Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grande and
Zostera capensis Setchell. Botanica Marina 37: 449–456
Aioi K, Komatsu T and Morita K (1998) The world’s longest
seagrass, Zostera caulescens from northeastern Japan. Aquat
Bot 61: 87–93
Aioi K and Nakaoka M (2003) The seagrasses of Japan. In: Green
EP and Short FT (eds) World Atlas of Seagrasses, pp 185–192.
University of California Press, Berkeley
Arasaki M (1950) The ecology of amamo (Zostera marina) and
koamamo (Zostera nana). Bull Jpn Soc Sci Fish 15: 567–572
Armiger LC (1964) An occurrence of Labyrinthula in New
Zealand Zostera. NZ J Bot 2: 3–9
Backman TW and Barilotti DC (1976) Irradiance reduction: Effects on standing crops of the eelgrass Zostera marina in a
coastal lagoon. Mar Biol 34: 33–40
Baldwin JR and Lovvorn JR (1994a) Expansion of seagrass habitat by the exotic Zostera japonica, and its use by dabbling
ducks and brant in boundary Bay, British Columbia. Mar Ecol
Prog Ser 103: 119–127
Baldwin JR and Lovvorn JR (1994b) Habitats and tidal accessibility of the marine foods of dabbling ducks and brant in
Boundary Bay, British Columbia. Mar Biol 120: 627–638
Bandeira SO (2002) Diversity and distribution of seagrasses
around Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. S Afr J Bot 68:
191–198
Bandeira SO and Gell F (2003) The seagrasses of Mozambique and Southeastern Africa. In: Green EP and Short FT
(eds) World Atlas of Seagrasses, pp 93–100. University of
California Press, Berkeley