Chapter 5 Seagrass Seeds and Dispersal Strategies
131
Kirkman H, Cook IH and Reid DD (1982) Biomass and growth
of Zostera capricorni Aschers in Port Hacking, N.S.W., Australia. Aquat Bot 12: 57–67
Kuo J, Iizumi H, Nilsen BE and Aioi K (1990) Fruit anatomy,
seed germination and seedling development in the Japanese
seagrass Phyllospadix (Zosteraceae). Aquat Bot 37: 229–245
Kuo J and Kirkman H (1992) Fruits, seeds and germination in
the seagrass Halophila ovalis (Hydrocharitaceae). Botanica
Marina 35: 197–204
Kuo J, Lee Long W and Coles RG (1993) Occurrence and
fruit and seed biology of Halophila tricostata Greenway (Hydrocharitaceae). Aust J Mar Freshwater Res 44: 43–57
Kuo J and Kirkman H (1996) Seedling development of selected
Posidonia species from southwest Australia. In Kuo J, Phillips
RC, Walker DI and Kirkman H (eds), Seagrass Biology: Proceedings of an International Workshop. Rottnest Isl. Western Australia, pp 57–64. Faculty of Science, UWA, Perth,
Australia
Lacap CDA, Vermaat JE, Rollon RN and Nacorda HM (2002)
Propagule dispersal of the SE Asian seagrasses Enhalus
acoroides and Thalassia hemprichii. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 235:
75–80
Levin SA, Muller-Landau HC, Nathan R and Chave J (2003)
The ecology and evolution of seed dispersal: A theoretical
perspective. Annu Rev Ecol Systematics 24: 575–604
Lewis RR III, and Phillips RC (1980) Occurrence of seeds and
seedlings of Thalassia testudinum Banks Ex K¨ onig in the
Florida Keys (USA). Aquat Bot 9: 377–380
Lipkin Y (1975) Halophila stipulaceae, a review of a successful
immigration. Aquat Bot 1: 203–215
Luckenbach ML and Orth RJ (1999) Effects of a deposit-feeding
invertebrate on the entrapment of Zostera marina L. seeds.
Aquat Bot 62: 235–247
Meyer SE and Allen PS (1999) Ecological genetics of seed germination regulation in Bromus tectorum L. I. Phenotypic variance among and within populations. Oecologia 120: 27–34
Meehan AJ and West RJ (2004) Seedling development and patch
formation of the seagrass Posidonia australis in a southeast
Australian estuary. Aquat Bot 79: 1–14
McConchie CA and Knox RB (1989) Pollination and reproductive biology of seagrasses. In Larkum AWD, McComb AJ and
Shepherd SA (eds) Biology of Seagrasses, pp 74–111. Elsevier
Publishers, Amsterdam
McMillan C (1976) Experimental studies on flowering and reproduction in seagrasses. Aquat Bot 2: 87–92
McMillan C (1981) Seed reserves and seed germination for two
seagrasses, Halodule wrightii and Syringodium filiforme, from
the Western Atlantic. Aquat Bot 11: 279–296
McMillan C (1983) Morphological diversity under controlled
conditions for the Halophila ovalis H. minor complex and the
Halodule uninervis complex from Shark Bay, Western Australia. Aquat Bot 17: 29–42
McMillan C (1987) Seed germination and seedling morphology
of the seagrass, Halophila engelmanii (Hydrocharitaceae).
Aquat Bot 28: 179–188
McMillan C (1988a) Seed germination and seedling development of Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld (Hydrocharitaceae)
from Panama. Aquat Bot 31: 169–176
McMillan C (1988b) The seed reserve of Halophila decipiens
Ostenfeld (Hydrocharitaceae) in Panama. Aquat Bot 31: 177–
182
McMillan C (1991) The longevity of seagrass seeds. Aquat Bot
40: 195–198
McMillan C and Jewett-Smith J (1988) The sex ratio and fruit
production of laboratory germinated seedlings of Halophila
engelmannii Aschers. (Hydrocharitaceae) from Redfish Bay,
Texas. Aquat Bot 32: 329–339
McMillan C and Soong K (1989) An annual cycle of flowering, fruiting and seed reserve for Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld (Hydrocharitaceae) in Panama. Aquat Bot 34: 375–
379
McMillan C, Bridges KW, Kock LR and Falanruw M (1982) Fruit
and seedlings of Cymodocea rotundata in Yap, Micronesia.
Aquat Bot 14: 99–105
Meehan AJ and West RJ (2004) Seedling development and patch
formation of the seagrass Posidonia australis in a southeastern
Australian estuary. Aquat Bot 79: 1–14
Moles AT and Westoby M (2003) Latitude, seed predation and
seed mass. J Biogeogr 30: 105–128
Moles AT, Warton DI and Westoby M (2003) Do small-seeded
species have higher survival through seed predation than largeseeded species? Ecology 84: 3148–3161
Moore K, Orth RJ and Nowak JF (1993) Environmental regulation of seed germination in Zostera marina L. (eelgrass) in
Chesapeake Bay: Effects of light, oxygen and sediment burial.
Aquat Bot 45: 79–91
Nathan R and Muller-Landau HC (2000) Spatial patterns of seed
dispersal, their determinants and consequences for recruitment. Trends Ecol Evol 15: 278–285
Nakaoka M (2002) Predation on seeds of seagrasses Zostera
marina and Zostera caulescens by a tanaid crustacean Zeuxo
sp. Aquat Bot 72: 99–106
Nienhuis PH (1983) Temporal and spatial patterns of eelgrass
(Zostera marina L.) in a former estuary in the Netherlands,
dominated by human activities. Mar Technol Soc J 17: 69–77
Olesen B (1999) Reproduction in Danish eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) stands: Size-dependence and biomass partitioning.
Aquat Bot 65: 209–219
Olesen B and Sand-Jensen K (1994) Patch dynamics of eelgrass,
Zostera marina. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 106: 147–156
Olesen B, Marba N, Duarte CM, Savela RS and Fortes MD (2004)
Recolonisation dynamics in a mixed seagrass meadow: the role
of clonal versus sexual processes. Estuaries 27: 770–780
Orth RJ (1999) Settling rates of Posidonia coriacea seeds and
Posidonia spp. seedling abundance off Rottnest Island, Perth,
Western Australia. In: Walker DI and Wells FE (eds) The Seagrass Flora and Fauna of Rottnest Island, Western Australia,
pp 51–61. Western Australia Museum, Perth
Orth RJ and Moore KA (1986) Seasonal and year-to-year variations in the growth of Zostera marina L. (eelgrass) in the lower
Chesapeake Bay. Aquat Bot 24:335–341
Orth RJ, Luckenbach ML and Moore KA (1994) Seed dispersal
in a marine macrophyte: Implications for colonization and
restoration. Ecology 75: 1927–1939
Orth RJ, Harwell MC, Bailey EM, Bartholomew A, Jawad JT,
Lombana AV, Moore KA, Rhode JM and Woods HE (2000) A
review of issues in seagrass seed dormancy and germination:
Implications for conversation and restoration. Mar Ecol Prog
Ser 200: 277–288
Orth RJ, Heck KL Jr, and Tunbridge DJ (2002) Predation on seeds
of the seagrass Posidonia australis in Western Australia. Mar
Ecol Prog Ser 244: 81–88
131
Kirkman H, Cook IH and Reid DD (1982) Biomass and growth
of Zostera capricorni Aschers in Port Hacking, N.S.W., Australia. Aquat Bot 12: 57–67
Kuo J, Iizumi H, Nilsen BE and Aioi K (1990) Fruit anatomy,
seed germination and seedling development in the Japanese
seagrass Phyllospadix (Zosteraceae). Aquat Bot 37: 229–245
Kuo J and Kirkman H (1992) Fruits, seeds and germination in
the seagrass Halophila ovalis (Hydrocharitaceae). Botanica
Marina 35: 197–204
Kuo J, Lee Long W and Coles RG (1993) Occurrence and
fruit and seed biology of Halophila tricostata Greenway (Hydrocharitaceae). Aust J Mar Freshwater Res 44: 43–57
Kuo J and Kirkman H (1996) Seedling development of selected
Posidonia species from southwest Australia. In Kuo J, Phillips
RC, Walker DI and Kirkman H (eds), Seagrass Biology: Proceedings of an International Workshop. Rottnest Isl. Western Australia, pp 57–64. Faculty of Science, UWA, Perth,
Australia
Lacap CDA, Vermaat JE, Rollon RN and Nacorda HM (2002)
Propagule dispersal of the SE Asian seagrasses Enhalus
acoroides and Thalassia hemprichii. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 235:
75–80
Levin SA, Muller-Landau HC, Nathan R and Chave J (2003)
The ecology and evolution of seed dispersal: A theoretical
perspective. Annu Rev Ecol Systematics 24: 575–604
Lewis RR III, and Phillips RC (1980) Occurrence of seeds and
seedlings of Thalassia testudinum Banks Ex K¨ onig in the
Florida Keys (USA). Aquat Bot 9: 377–380
Lipkin Y (1975) Halophila stipulaceae, a review of a successful
immigration. Aquat Bot 1: 203–215
Luckenbach ML and Orth RJ (1999) Effects of a deposit-feeding
invertebrate on the entrapment of Zostera marina L. seeds.
Aquat Bot 62: 235–247
Meyer SE and Allen PS (1999) Ecological genetics of seed germination regulation in Bromus tectorum L. I. Phenotypic variance among and within populations. Oecologia 120: 27–34
Meehan AJ and West RJ (2004) Seedling development and patch
formation of the seagrass Posidonia australis in a southeast
Australian estuary. Aquat Bot 79: 1–14
McConchie CA and Knox RB (1989) Pollination and reproductive biology of seagrasses. In Larkum AWD, McComb AJ and
Shepherd SA (eds) Biology of Seagrasses, pp 74–111. Elsevier
Publishers, Amsterdam
McMillan C (1976) Experimental studies on flowering and reproduction in seagrasses. Aquat Bot 2: 87–92
McMillan C (1981) Seed reserves and seed germination for two
seagrasses, Halodule wrightii and Syringodium filiforme, from
the Western Atlantic. Aquat Bot 11: 279–296
McMillan C (1983) Morphological diversity under controlled
conditions for the Halophila ovalis H. minor complex and the
Halodule uninervis complex from Shark Bay, Western Australia. Aquat Bot 17: 29–42
McMillan C (1987) Seed germination and seedling morphology
of the seagrass, Halophila engelmanii (Hydrocharitaceae).
Aquat Bot 28: 179–188
McMillan C (1988a) Seed germination and seedling development of Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld (Hydrocharitaceae)
from Panama. Aquat Bot 31: 169–176
McMillan C (1988b) The seed reserve of Halophila decipiens
Ostenfeld (Hydrocharitaceae) in Panama. Aquat Bot 31: 177–
182
McMillan C (1991) The longevity of seagrass seeds. Aquat Bot
40: 195–198
McMillan C and Jewett-Smith J (1988) The sex ratio and fruit
production of laboratory germinated seedlings of Halophila
engelmannii Aschers. (Hydrocharitaceae) from Redfish Bay,
Texas. Aquat Bot 32: 329–339
McMillan C and Soong K (1989) An annual cycle of flowering, fruiting and seed reserve for Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld (Hydrocharitaceae) in Panama. Aquat Bot 34: 375–
379
McMillan C, Bridges KW, Kock LR and Falanruw M (1982) Fruit
and seedlings of Cymodocea rotundata in Yap, Micronesia.
Aquat Bot 14: 99–105
Meehan AJ and West RJ (2004) Seedling development and patch
formation of the seagrass Posidonia australis in a southeastern
Australian estuary. Aquat Bot 79: 1–14
Moles AT and Westoby M (2003) Latitude, seed predation and
seed mass. J Biogeogr 30: 105–128
Moles AT, Warton DI and Westoby M (2003) Do small-seeded
species have higher survival through seed predation than largeseeded species? Ecology 84: 3148–3161
Moore K, Orth RJ and Nowak JF (1993) Environmental regulation of seed germination in Zostera marina L. (eelgrass) in
Chesapeake Bay: Effects of light, oxygen and sediment burial.
Aquat Bot 45: 79–91
Nathan R and Muller-Landau HC (2000) Spatial patterns of seed
dispersal, their determinants and consequences for recruitment. Trends Ecol Evol 15: 278–285
Nakaoka M (2002) Predation on seeds of seagrasses Zostera
marina and Zostera caulescens by a tanaid crustacean Zeuxo
sp. Aquat Bot 72: 99–106
Nienhuis PH (1983) Temporal and spatial patterns of eelgrass
(Zostera marina L.) in a former estuary in the Netherlands,
dominated by human activities. Mar Technol Soc J 17: 69–77
Olesen B (1999) Reproduction in Danish eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) stands: Size-dependence and biomass partitioning.
Aquat Bot 65: 209–219
Olesen B and Sand-Jensen K (1994) Patch dynamics of eelgrass,
Zostera marina. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 106: 147–156
Olesen B, Marba N, Duarte CM, Savela RS and Fortes MD (2004)
Recolonisation dynamics in a mixed seagrass meadow: the role
of clonal versus sexual processes. Estuaries 27: 770–780
Orth RJ (1999) Settling rates of Posidonia coriacea seeds and
Posidonia spp. seedling abundance off Rottnest Island, Perth,
Western Australia. In: Walker DI and Wells FE (eds) The Seagrass Flora and Fauna of Rottnest Island, Western Australia,
pp 51–61. Western Australia Museum, Perth
Orth RJ and Moore KA (1986) Seasonal and year-to-year variations in the growth of Zostera marina L. (eelgrass) in the lower
Chesapeake Bay. Aquat Bot 24:335–341
Orth RJ, Luckenbach ML and Moore KA (1994) Seed dispersal
in a marine macrophyte: Implications for colonization and
restoration. Ecology 75: 1927–1939
Orth RJ, Harwell MC, Bailey EM, Bartholomew A, Jawad JT,
Lombana AV, Moore KA, Rhode JM and Woods HE (2000) A
review of issues in seagrass seed dormancy and germination:
Implications for conversation and restoration. Mar Ecol Prog
Ser 200: 277–288
Orth RJ, Heck KL Jr, and Tunbridge DJ (2002) Predation on seeds
of the seagrass Posidonia australis in Western Australia. Mar
Ecol Prog Ser 244: 81–88