130
R. J. Orth, M. C. Harwell and G. J. Inglis
Harms KE, Wright SJ, Calderon O, Hernandez A and Herre
EA (2000) Pervasive density-dependent recruitment enhances
seedling diversity in a tropical forest. Nature 404: 493–495
Harper JL (1977) Population Biology of Plants. Academic Press,
London
Harper JL, Williams JT and Sagar GR (1965) The behavior of
seeds in soil. 1. The heterogeneity of soil surfaces and its role
in determining the establishment of plants from seed. J Ecol
53: 273–286
Harrison PG (1993) Variations in demography of Zostera marina
and Z. noltii on an intertidal gradient. Aquat Bot 45: 63–77
Harrison PG and Bigley RE (1982) The recent introduction of
the seagrass Zostera japonica Aschers. and Graebn. to the
Pacific coast of North America. Can J Fisheries Aquat Sci 39:
1642–1648
Harwell MC (2000) Ecological dispersal mechanisms, reproductive ecology, and the importance of scale in Zostera marina
in Chesapeake Bay. PhD Thesis, Virginia Institute of Marine
Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA.
p 230
Harwell MC, Orth RJ (1999) Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) seed
protection for field experiments and implications for largescale restoration. Aquat Bot 64: 51–61
Harwell MC and Orth RJ (2001) Influence of a tube-dwelling
polychaete on the dispersal of fragmented reproductive shoots
of eelgrass. Aquat Bot 70: 1–8
Harwell MC and Orth RJ (2002a) Long distance dispersal potential in a marine macrophyte. Ecology 83: 3319–3330
Harwell MC and Orth RJ (2002b) Seed bank patterns in Chesapeake Bay eelgrass (Zostera marina L.): A baywide perspective. Estuaries 25: 1196–1204
Hauxwell J, Cebri´ an J, Furlong C and Valiela I (2001) Macroalgal
canopies contribute to eelgrass (Zostera marina) decline in
temperate estuarine ecosystems. Ecology 82: 1007–1022
Hauxwell J, Cebri´ an J and Valiela I (2002) Eelgrass Zostera marina loss in temperate estuaries: Relationship to land-derived
nitrogen loads and effect of light limitation imposed by algae.
Mar Ecol Prog Ser 247: 59–73
Heck KL Jr, Hays C and Orth RJ (2003) A critical evaluation of
the nursery role hypothesis for seagrass meadows. Mar Ecol
Prog Ser 253: 123–136
Heilbuth JC, Ilves KL and Otto SP (2001) The consequences of
dioecy for seed dispersal: Modeling the seed-shadow handicap. Evolution 55: 880–888
Higgins SI, Nathan R and Cain ML (2003) Are long-distance
dispersal events in plants usually caused by nonstandard means
of dispersal? Ecology 84: 1945–1956
Holbrook SJ, Reed DC, Hansen K and Blanchette CA (2000)
Spatial and temporal patterns of predation on seeds of the
surfgrass Phyllospadix torreyi. Mar Biol 136: 739–747
Hootsmans MJM, Vermaat JE and Van Vierssen W (1987) Seedbank development, germination and early seedling survival of
two seagrass species from the Netherlands: Zostera marina L.
and Zostera noltii Hornem. Aquat Bot 28: 275–285
Howe HF and Smallwood J (1982) Ecology of seed dispersal.
Annu Rev Ecol Systematics 13: 201–228
Howe HF and Miriti MN (2000) No question: Seed dispersal
matters. Trends Ecol Evol 15: 434–436
Inglis GJ (2000a) Variation in the recruitment behavior of seagrass seeds: Implications for population dynamics and resource management. Pac Conserv Biol 5: 251–259
Inglis GJ (2000b) Disturbance-related heterogeneity in the seed
banks of a marine angiosperm. J Ecol 88: 88–99
Inglis GJ (2000c) Disturbance-related germination of Halodule
uninervis seeds. Biol Marina Mediterr 7: 63–66
Inglis GJ and Lincoln Smith MP (1998) Synchronous flowering
of estuarine seagrass meadows. Aquat Bot 60: 37–48
Inglis GJ and Waycott M (2001) Methods for assessing seagrass
seed ecology and population genetics. In Short FT and Coles
RG (eds) Global Seagrass Research Methods, pp 123–141.
Elsevier Science, Amsterdam
Jackson JBC, et al (2001) Historical overfishing and the recent
collapse of coastal ecosystems. Nature 293: 629–638
Janzen DH (1971) Seed predation by animals. Annu Rev Ecol
Systematics 2: 465–492
Janzen DH (1970) Herbivores and the number of tree species in
the tropics. Am Nat 104: 501–528
Jewett-Smith J and McMillan C (1990) Germination and
seedling development of Halophila engelmannii Aschers.
(Hydrocharitaceae) under axenic conditions. Aquat Bot 36:
167–177
Johnson EA and Williams SL (1982) Sexual reproduction in
seagrasses: Reports for five Caribbean species with details for
Halodule wrightii Aschers. and Syringodium filiforme K¨ utz.
Caribbean J Sci 18: 61–70
Johnson MR, Williams SL, Lieberman CL and Solbak A (2003)
Changes in the abundance of the seagrasses Zostera marina
L. (eelgrass) and Ruppia maritima L. (widgeongrass) in San
Diego, California, following and El Nino event. Estuaries 26:
106–115
Kaldy JE and Dunton KH (1999) Ontogenetic photosynthetic
changes, dispersal and survival of Thalassia testudinum (turtle
grass) seedlings in a sub-tropical lagoon. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol
240: 193–212
Kaldy JE and Dunton KH (2000) Above- and below-ground production, biomass and reproductive ecology of Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass) in a subtropical; coastal lagoon. Mar
Ecol Prog Ser 193: 271–283
Kawasaki Y (1993) Effects of some environmental factors on
seed germination and seedling growth of Zostera marina L. In:
International Workshop on Seagrass Biology; Itominato. 1993
Proceedings, Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo,
p 28–35
Kendrick GA, Eckersley J and Walker DI (1999) Landscapescale changes in seagrass distribution over time: A case study
from Success Bank, Western Australia. Aquat Bot 65: 293–
309
Kendall MS, Battista T and Hillis-Star Z (2004) Long term expansion of a deep Syringodium filiforme meadow in St Croix,
US Virgin Islands: the potential of hurricanes in the dispersal
of seeds. Aquat Bot 78: 15–25
Kenworthy J (2000) The role of sexual reproduction in maintaining populations of Halophila decipiens: Implications for
the biodiversity and conservation of tropical seagrasses. Pac
Conserv Biol 5: 260–268
Kimber A, Korschgen CE and van der Valk AG (1995) The distribution of Vallisneria americana seeds and seedling light
requirements in the Upper Mississippi River. Can J Bot 73:
1966–1973
Kirkman H (1998) Pilot experiments on planting seedlings and
small seagrass propagules in Western Australia. Mar Pollut
Bull 37: 460–467
R. J. Orth, M. C. Harwell and G. J. Inglis
Harms KE, Wright SJ, Calderon O, Hernandez A and Herre
EA (2000) Pervasive density-dependent recruitment enhances
seedling diversity in a tropical forest. Nature 404: 493–495
Harper JL (1977) Population Biology of Plants. Academic Press,
London
Harper JL, Williams JT and Sagar GR (1965) The behavior of
seeds in soil. 1. The heterogeneity of soil surfaces and its role
in determining the establishment of plants from seed. J Ecol
53: 273–286
Harrison PG (1993) Variations in demography of Zostera marina
and Z. noltii on an intertidal gradient. Aquat Bot 45: 63–77
Harrison PG and Bigley RE (1982) The recent introduction of
the seagrass Zostera japonica Aschers. and Graebn. to the
Pacific coast of North America. Can J Fisheries Aquat Sci 39:
1642–1648
Harwell MC (2000) Ecological dispersal mechanisms, reproductive ecology, and the importance of scale in Zostera marina
in Chesapeake Bay. PhD Thesis, Virginia Institute of Marine
Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA.
p 230
Harwell MC, Orth RJ (1999) Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) seed
protection for field experiments and implications for largescale restoration. Aquat Bot 64: 51–61
Harwell MC and Orth RJ (2001) Influence of a tube-dwelling
polychaete on the dispersal of fragmented reproductive shoots
of eelgrass. Aquat Bot 70: 1–8
Harwell MC and Orth RJ (2002a) Long distance dispersal potential in a marine macrophyte. Ecology 83: 3319–3330
Harwell MC and Orth RJ (2002b) Seed bank patterns in Chesapeake Bay eelgrass (Zostera marina L.): A baywide perspective. Estuaries 25: 1196–1204
Hauxwell J, Cebri´ an J, Furlong C and Valiela I (2001) Macroalgal
canopies contribute to eelgrass (Zostera marina) decline in
temperate estuarine ecosystems. Ecology 82: 1007–1022
Hauxwell J, Cebri´ an J and Valiela I (2002) Eelgrass Zostera marina loss in temperate estuaries: Relationship to land-derived
nitrogen loads and effect of light limitation imposed by algae.
Mar Ecol Prog Ser 247: 59–73
Heck KL Jr, Hays C and Orth RJ (2003) A critical evaluation of
the nursery role hypothesis for seagrass meadows. Mar Ecol
Prog Ser 253: 123–136
Heilbuth JC, Ilves KL and Otto SP (2001) The consequences of
dioecy for seed dispersal: Modeling the seed-shadow handicap. Evolution 55: 880–888
Higgins SI, Nathan R and Cain ML (2003) Are long-distance
dispersal events in plants usually caused by nonstandard means
of dispersal? Ecology 84: 1945–1956
Holbrook SJ, Reed DC, Hansen K and Blanchette CA (2000)
Spatial and temporal patterns of predation on seeds of the
surfgrass Phyllospadix torreyi. Mar Biol 136: 739–747
Hootsmans MJM, Vermaat JE and Van Vierssen W (1987) Seedbank development, germination and early seedling survival of
two seagrass species from the Netherlands: Zostera marina L.
and Zostera noltii Hornem. Aquat Bot 28: 275–285
Howe HF and Smallwood J (1982) Ecology of seed dispersal.
Annu Rev Ecol Systematics 13: 201–228
Howe HF and Miriti MN (2000) No question: Seed dispersal
matters. Trends Ecol Evol 15: 434–436
Inglis GJ (2000a) Variation in the recruitment behavior of seagrass seeds: Implications for population dynamics and resource management. Pac Conserv Biol 5: 251–259
Inglis GJ (2000b) Disturbance-related heterogeneity in the seed
banks of a marine angiosperm. J Ecol 88: 88–99
Inglis GJ (2000c) Disturbance-related germination of Halodule
uninervis seeds. Biol Marina Mediterr 7: 63–66
Inglis GJ and Lincoln Smith MP (1998) Synchronous flowering
of estuarine seagrass meadows. Aquat Bot 60: 37–48
Inglis GJ and Waycott M (2001) Methods for assessing seagrass
seed ecology and population genetics. In Short FT and Coles
RG (eds) Global Seagrass Research Methods, pp 123–141.
Elsevier Science, Amsterdam
Jackson JBC, et al (2001) Historical overfishing and the recent
collapse of coastal ecosystems. Nature 293: 629–638
Janzen DH (1971) Seed predation by animals. Annu Rev Ecol
Systematics 2: 465–492
Janzen DH (1970) Herbivores and the number of tree species in
the tropics. Am Nat 104: 501–528
Jewett-Smith J and McMillan C (1990) Germination and
seedling development of Halophila engelmannii Aschers.
(Hydrocharitaceae) under axenic conditions. Aquat Bot 36:
167–177
Johnson EA and Williams SL (1982) Sexual reproduction in
seagrasses: Reports for five Caribbean species with details for
Halodule wrightii Aschers. and Syringodium filiforme K¨ utz.
Caribbean J Sci 18: 61–70
Johnson MR, Williams SL, Lieberman CL and Solbak A (2003)
Changes in the abundance of the seagrasses Zostera marina
L. (eelgrass) and Ruppia maritima L. (widgeongrass) in San
Diego, California, following and El Nino event. Estuaries 26:
106–115
Kaldy JE and Dunton KH (1999) Ontogenetic photosynthetic
changes, dispersal and survival of Thalassia testudinum (turtle
grass) seedlings in a sub-tropical lagoon. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol
240: 193–212
Kaldy JE and Dunton KH (2000) Above- and below-ground production, biomass and reproductive ecology of Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass) in a subtropical; coastal lagoon. Mar
Ecol Prog Ser 193: 271–283
Kawasaki Y (1993) Effects of some environmental factors on
seed germination and seedling growth of Zostera marina L. In:
International Workshop on Seagrass Biology; Itominato. 1993
Proceedings, Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo,
p 28–35
Kendrick GA, Eckersley J and Walker DI (1999) Landscapescale changes in seagrass distribution over time: A case study
from Success Bank, Western Australia. Aquat Bot 65: 293–
309
Kendall MS, Battista T and Hillis-Star Z (2004) Long term expansion of a deep Syringodium filiforme meadow in St Croix,
US Virgin Islands: the potential of hurricanes in the dispersal
of seeds. Aquat Bot 78: 15–25
Kenworthy J (2000) The role of sexual reproduction in maintaining populations of Halophila decipiens: Implications for
the biodiversity and conservation of tropical seagrasses. Pac
Conserv Biol 5: 260–268
Kimber A, Korschgen CE and van der Valk AG (1995) The distribution of Vallisneria americana seeds and seedling light
requirements in the Upper Mississippi River. Can J Bot 73:
1966–1973
Kirkman H (1998) Pilot experiments on planting seedlings and
small seagrass propagules in Western Australia. Mar Pollut
Bull 37: 460–467