116
et al. 1997 ), and in milkfi sh in Taiwan (Chang et al. 2006 ). During a routine examination, granulomas, notably in the buccal cavity and vent, and a few acid-fast bacteria were noted in <1 % of the otherwise healthy fi sh. On clinically diseased fi sh,
the disease signs would include listlessness, inappetance, swollen abdomen and visible granulomas (Teska et al. 1997 ). Milkfi sh displayed epithelial granulomas and
red/grey nodules throughout the fi sh, which experienced 67 % mortalities (Chang
et al. 2006 ).
Myc. avium. There has been one account of the organism associated with inappetance and granulomas on a captive epaulette shark ( Hemiscyllium ocellatum ) in
The Netherlands (Janse and Kik 2012 ).
An organism considered to resemble Myc. chelonei was associated with granulomatous lesions resulting in high mortalities in cultured thread-sail fi lefi sh
( Stephanolepis cirrhifer ) in Japan during 2009 and 2010. Diseased fi sh displayed
abdominal swellings and numerous white nodules containing thick, pale-yellow
matter, which were located on the surface of internal organs (Fukano et al. 2015 ).
Also, Myc. chelonei has been linked with non-tubercular, tumour-like skin and oral
(caulifl ower-like) lesions in 15 farmed sturgeon ( Acipenser gueldenstaedtii ) in Italy
(Antuofermo et al. 2014 ).
Myc. fortuitum has been implicated with mycobacteriosis in farmed Nile tilapia
in Mexico (Lara-Flores et al. 2014 ).
Myc. gordonae was recovered from guppy (Poecilia reticulata) in Thailand notably during rainy and/or cold periods. The fi sh, which experienced substantial mortalities, displayed inappetance, sluggish swimming behaviour, fi n erosion, skin
ulceration and the presence of systemic granulomas (Sakai et al. 2005 ).
Myc. marinum was fi rst recognised from the liver, spleen and kidney of tropical
coral fi sh kept in the Philadelphia Aquarium (Aronson 1926 ). As the name implies,
the organism was considered to be only pathogenic to marine fi sh. But, it is now
recognised to infect both marine and freshwater fi sh and also human beings (Van
Duijn 1981 ). Currently, Myc. marinum is a major constraint on the farming of sea
bass in Israel, leading to stunting and therefore loss of market value of the infected
fi sh (Knibb et al. 1993 ), African catfi sh in Poland (Antychowicz et al. 2003 ), and in
Chesapeake Bay, USA (Gauthier et al. ( 2004 ), in farmed meagre ( Argyrosomus
regius ) in Turkey (Avsever et al. 2014 ; Timur et al. 2015 ), and in hybrid sturgeon in
Taiwan (Chang et al. 2014 ). Here, an epizootic has developed, and fi sh experimentation has revealed the development of large aggregates of macrophages, which contain phagocytosed bacteria, with Myc. marinum contained exclusively within
phagosomes. The organism was associated with mycobacteriosis in Brazilian fl ounder ( Paralichthys orbignyanus ) , in barber goby ( Elacatinus fi garo ) in Brazil
(Romano et al. 2012 ), in Nile tilapia in Mexico (Lara-Flores et al. 2014 ), and in
aquarium and freshwater fi sh from Central Europe (Slany et al. 2014 ). It is relevant
to note that the fi rst case of ‘tuberculosis’ reported in wild stocks, was in cod ( Gadus
morhua) landed at Fleetwood (UK), although isolation of the pathogen was not
achieved (Alexander 1913 ). Jacobs et al. ( 2009 ) discussed a relationship between
poor diet and the increased severity of infection in striped bass.
3 Aerobic Gram-Positive Rods and Cocci
et al. 1997 ), and in milkfi sh in Taiwan (Chang et al. 2006 ). During a routine examination, granulomas, notably in the buccal cavity and vent, and a few acid-fast bacteria were noted in <1 % of the otherwise healthy fi sh. On clinically diseased fi sh,
the disease signs would include listlessness, inappetance, swollen abdomen and visible granulomas (Teska et al. 1997 ). Milkfi sh displayed epithelial granulomas and
red/grey nodules throughout the fi sh, which experienced 67 % mortalities (Chang
et al. 2006 ).
Myc. avium. There has been one account of the organism associated with inappetance and granulomas on a captive epaulette shark ( Hemiscyllium ocellatum ) in
The Netherlands (Janse and Kik 2012 ).
An organism considered to resemble Myc. chelonei was associated with granulomatous lesions resulting in high mortalities in cultured thread-sail fi lefi sh
( Stephanolepis cirrhifer ) in Japan during 2009 and 2010. Diseased fi sh displayed
abdominal swellings and numerous white nodules containing thick, pale-yellow
matter, which were located on the surface of internal organs (Fukano et al. 2015 ).
Also, Myc. chelonei has been linked with non-tubercular, tumour-like skin and oral
(caulifl ower-like) lesions in 15 farmed sturgeon ( Acipenser gueldenstaedtii ) in Italy
(Antuofermo et al. 2014 ).
Myc. fortuitum has been implicated with mycobacteriosis in farmed Nile tilapia
in Mexico (Lara-Flores et al. 2014 ).
Myc. gordonae was recovered from guppy (Poecilia reticulata) in Thailand notably during rainy and/or cold periods. The fi sh, which experienced substantial mortalities, displayed inappetance, sluggish swimming behaviour, fi n erosion, skin
ulceration and the presence of systemic granulomas (Sakai et al. 2005 ).
Myc. marinum was fi rst recognised from the liver, spleen and kidney of tropical
coral fi sh kept in the Philadelphia Aquarium (Aronson 1926 ). As the name implies,
the organism was considered to be only pathogenic to marine fi sh. But, it is now
recognised to infect both marine and freshwater fi sh and also human beings (Van
Duijn 1981 ). Currently, Myc. marinum is a major constraint on the farming of sea
bass in Israel, leading to stunting and therefore loss of market value of the infected
fi sh (Knibb et al. 1993 ), African catfi sh in Poland (Antychowicz et al. 2003 ), and in
Chesapeake Bay, USA (Gauthier et al. ( 2004 ), in farmed meagre ( Argyrosomus
regius ) in Turkey (Avsever et al. 2014 ; Timur et al. 2015 ), and in hybrid sturgeon in
Taiwan (Chang et al. 2014 ). Here, an epizootic has developed, and fi sh experimentation has revealed the development of large aggregates of macrophages, which contain phagocytosed bacteria, with Myc. marinum contained exclusively within
phagosomes. The organism was associated with mycobacteriosis in Brazilian fl ounder ( Paralichthys orbignyanus ) , in barber goby ( Elacatinus fi garo ) in Brazil
(Romano et al. 2012 ), in Nile tilapia in Mexico (Lara-Flores et al. 2014 ), and in
aquarium and freshwater fi sh from Central Europe (Slany et al. 2014 ). It is relevant
to note that the fi rst case of ‘tuberculosis’ reported in wild stocks, was in cod ( Gadus
morhua) landed at Fleetwood (UK), although isolation of the pathogen was not
achieved (Alexander 1913 ). Jacobs et al. ( 2009 ) discussed a relationship between
poor diet and the increased severity of infection in striped bass.
3 Aerobic Gram-Positive Rods and Cocci