(Hopley, 1991; Simmons, 1991). Sometimes, piles cannot
be driven into the reef top; other times, piles do not reach
a firm substrate. Raft-type foundations spreading the load
over a larger surface area of the reef top have been adopted
in many situations, while the most recent new structures
are large cylinder caissons located in inter-reefal waters
of the continental shelf.
The highly corrosive tropical marine environment
requires either the use of expensive corrosion-resistant
materials or frequent maintenance and replacement of
structures. Furthermore, birds and the guano they produce
are likely to interfere with the operation of instruments.
Conclusion
Special care is required when locating, designing,
constructing, and maintaining infrastructure in coral reef
regions. Infrastructure located on reefs and unstable reef
islands inevitably affects the natural environment and is
also affected by the harsh marine environment in these
regions. In most cases, the site-specific investigation of
the waves, currents and other factors affecting this infrastructure will be complex and hence its cost will comprise
a relatively larger proportion of the total project cost compared with similar works located in more benign coastal
environments. These low-lying islands and their infrastructure are also vulnerable to flooding from storm
surges, wave set-up and tsunamis, as well as rising sea
levels.
Bibliography
Note. A number of the papers referenced are published in Gourlay,
M. R. (ed.), 1991. Proceedings: Engineering in Coral Reef
Regions Conference (ECRRC), Townsville, Australia, 5–7
Nov 1990. Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Queensland.
Beach Protection Authority of Queensland (BPAQ), 1989. Green
Island Data Report. Beach Protection Authority, Queensland.
Bell, P. R. F., 1991. Impact of run-off and waste water discharges
on eutrophication in the Great Barrier Reef region. ECRRC,
pp. 111–115.
Bodge, K. R., and Howard, S. H., 2007. Groins, headlands, and cutting an island in two in the Maldives. In Proceedings Coastal
Engineering 2006: Thirtieth International Conference. World
Scientific, Vol. 4, pp. 3656–3668.
Bullen, F., 1991. The use of coral detritus in engineering projects in
reef regions. ECRRC, pp. 81–86.
Coleman, R., 1991. Modelling the design of causeways and channels on coral islands. ECRRC, pp. 149–153.
Goffredo, S., Piccinetti, C., and Zaccariti, F., 2007. Tsunami survey
expedition: preliminary investigation of Maldivian coral reefs
two weeks after the event. Environmental Monitoring Assessment, 131, 95–105.
Gourlay, M. R., 1983. Interaction between natural processes and
engineering works on the leeward side of a coral cay: a case
study of Heron Island on the Great Barrier Reef. Proceedings:
International Conference on Coastal and Port Engineering in
Developing Countries, March 1983, Colombo, pp. 1468–1482.
Gourlay, M. R., 1995. Impact of Heron Island boat harbour upon
its adjoining reef and cay. Australasian Coasts and Ports Conference, May–June 1995, Melbourne. Engineers Australia,
pp. 31–36.
Gourlay, M. R., and Hacker, J. L. F., 2008. Reef-top currents in
vicinity of Heron Island boat harbour, Great Barrier Reef, Australia: 2. specific influences of tides, meteorological events and
waves. University of Queensland, Civil Engineering Report
CH73/08, pp. 253–286. http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/
UQ:159075
Gourlay, M. R., and Jell, J. S., 1993. Heron Island Spoil Dump.
Townsville: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Research
Publication No. 28.
Gourlay, M. R., Harper, B. A., Cox, R. J., Stone, P. B., and Webb, T.,
2004. Coastal Engineering Guidelines for Working with the Australian Coast in an Ecologically Sustainable Way. Barton,
A. C. T.: Engineers Australia, National Committee on Coastal
and Ocean Engineering.
Hopley, D., 1982. The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef:
Quaternary Development of Coral Reefs. New York: WileyInterscience.
Hopley, D., 1991. The geology and geomorphology of the Great
Barrier Reef in relation to engineering problems. ECRRC,
pp. 61–74.
Hopley, D., Smithers, S. G., and Parnell, K. E., 2007. The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef: Development, Diversity and
Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kench, P., Parnell, K., and Brander, R., 2003. A process based
assessment of engineered structures on reef islands of the Maldives. Australasian Coasts and Ports Conference, Auckland,
2003.
Kinsey, D. W., 1991. Water quality and its effects on reef ecology.
ECRRC, pp. 105–109.
Maragos, J. E., 1993. Impact of coastal construction on coral reefs in
the U. S.-affiliated Pacific Islands. Coastal Management, 21,
235–269.
Nielsen, P., 1999. Groundwater dynamics and salinity in coastal barriers. Journal of Coastal Research, 15, 732–740.
Rasmussen, C., Cuff, C., and Hopley, D., 1993. Evidence of anthropogenic disturbances retained in the skeleton of massive corals
from Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. In Proceedings Seventh
International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam, 1992. University
of Guam Press, Vol. 1, pp. 201–210.
Simmons, J. V., 1991. The nearshore geotechnical environment:
implications for the permit process and construction monitoring.
ECRRC, pp. 75–80.
Srinivas, H., and Nakagawa, Y., 2008. Environmental implications
for disaster preparedness: Lessons learnt from the Indian Ocean
tsunami. Journal of Environmental Management, 89, 4–13.
Cross-references
Atoll Islands (Motu)
Boat Channel
Cay Formation
Climate Change: Impact of Sea Level Rise on Reef Flat Zonation
and Productivity
Climate Change: Increasing Storm Activity
Coral Cays-Geohydrology
Engineering On Coral Reefs With Emphasis On Pacific Reefs
Low Wooded Islands
Maldives
Mangrove Islands
Mining/Quarrying of Coral Reefs
Reef Structure
Tropical Cyclone/Hurricane
Tsunami
Unvegetated Cays
Vegetated Cays
Wave Set-Up
INFRASTRUCTURE AND REEF ISLANDS
607
be driven into the reef top; other times, piles do not reach
a firm substrate. Raft-type foundations spreading the load
over a larger surface area of the reef top have been adopted
in many situations, while the most recent new structures
are large cylinder caissons located in inter-reefal waters
of the continental shelf.
The highly corrosive tropical marine environment
requires either the use of expensive corrosion-resistant
materials or frequent maintenance and replacement of
structures. Furthermore, birds and the guano they produce
are likely to interfere with the operation of instruments.
Conclusion
Special care is required when locating, designing,
constructing, and maintaining infrastructure in coral reef
regions. Infrastructure located on reefs and unstable reef
islands inevitably affects the natural environment and is
also affected by the harsh marine environment in these
regions. In most cases, the site-specific investigation of
the waves, currents and other factors affecting this infrastructure will be complex and hence its cost will comprise
a relatively larger proportion of the total project cost compared with similar works located in more benign coastal
environments. These low-lying islands and their infrastructure are also vulnerable to flooding from storm
surges, wave set-up and tsunamis, as well as rising sea
levels.
Bibliography
Note. A number of the papers referenced are published in Gourlay,
M. R. (ed.), 1991. Proceedings: Engineering in Coral Reef
Regions Conference (ECRRC), Townsville, Australia, 5–7
Nov 1990. Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Queensland.
Beach Protection Authority of Queensland (BPAQ), 1989. Green
Island Data Report. Beach Protection Authority, Queensland.
Bell, P. R. F., 1991. Impact of run-off and waste water discharges
on eutrophication in the Great Barrier Reef region. ECRRC,
pp. 111–115.
Bodge, K. R., and Howard, S. H., 2007. Groins, headlands, and cutting an island in two in the Maldives. In Proceedings Coastal
Engineering 2006: Thirtieth International Conference. World
Scientific, Vol. 4, pp. 3656–3668.
Bullen, F., 1991. The use of coral detritus in engineering projects in
reef regions. ECRRC, pp. 81–86.
Coleman, R., 1991. Modelling the design of causeways and channels on coral islands. ECRRC, pp. 149–153.
Goffredo, S., Piccinetti, C., and Zaccariti, F., 2007. Tsunami survey
expedition: preliminary investigation of Maldivian coral reefs
two weeks after the event. Environmental Monitoring Assessment, 131, 95–105.
Gourlay, M. R., 1983. Interaction between natural processes and
engineering works on the leeward side of a coral cay: a case
study of Heron Island on the Great Barrier Reef. Proceedings:
International Conference on Coastal and Port Engineering in
Developing Countries, March 1983, Colombo, pp. 1468–1482.
Gourlay, M. R., 1995. Impact of Heron Island boat harbour upon
its adjoining reef and cay. Australasian Coasts and Ports Conference, May–June 1995, Melbourne. Engineers Australia,
pp. 31–36.
Gourlay, M. R., and Hacker, J. L. F., 2008. Reef-top currents in
vicinity of Heron Island boat harbour, Great Barrier Reef, Australia: 2. specific influences of tides, meteorological events and
waves. University of Queensland, Civil Engineering Report
CH73/08, pp. 253–286. http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/
UQ:159075
Gourlay, M. R., and Jell, J. S., 1993. Heron Island Spoil Dump.
Townsville: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Research
Publication No. 28.
Gourlay, M. R., Harper, B. A., Cox, R. J., Stone, P. B., and Webb, T.,
2004. Coastal Engineering Guidelines for Working with the Australian Coast in an Ecologically Sustainable Way. Barton,
A. C. T.: Engineers Australia, National Committee on Coastal
and Ocean Engineering.
Hopley, D., 1982. The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef:
Quaternary Development of Coral Reefs. New York: WileyInterscience.
Hopley, D., 1991. The geology and geomorphology of the Great
Barrier Reef in relation to engineering problems. ECRRC,
pp. 61–74.
Hopley, D., Smithers, S. G., and Parnell, K. E., 2007. The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef: Development, Diversity and
Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kench, P., Parnell, K., and Brander, R., 2003. A process based
assessment of engineered structures on reef islands of the Maldives. Australasian Coasts and Ports Conference, Auckland,
2003.
Kinsey, D. W., 1991. Water quality and its effects on reef ecology.
ECRRC, pp. 105–109.
Maragos, J. E., 1993. Impact of coastal construction on coral reefs in
the U. S.-affiliated Pacific Islands. Coastal Management, 21,
235–269.
Nielsen, P., 1999. Groundwater dynamics and salinity in coastal barriers. Journal of Coastal Research, 15, 732–740.
Rasmussen, C., Cuff, C., and Hopley, D., 1993. Evidence of anthropogenic disturbances retained in the skeleton of massive corals
from Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. In Proceedings Seventh
International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam, 1992. University
of Guam Press, Vol. 1, pp. 201–210.
Simmons, J. V., 1991. The nearshore geotechnical environment:
implications for the permit process and construction monitoring.
ECRRC, pp. 75–80.
Srinivas, H., and Nakagawa, Y., 2008. Environmental implications
for disaster preparedness: Lessons learnt from the Indian Ocean
tsunami. Journal of Environmental Management, 89, 4–13.
Cross-references
Atoll Islands (Motu)
Boat Channel
Cay Formation
Climate Change: Impact of Sea Level Rise on Reef Flat Zonation
and Productivity
Climate Change: Increasing Storm Activity
Coral Cays-Geohydrology
Engineering On Coral Reefs With Emphasis On Pacific Reefs
Low Wooded Islands
Maldives
Mangrove Islands
Mining/Quarrying of Coral Reefs
Reef Structure
Tropical Cyclone/Hurricane
Tsunami
Unvegetated Cays
Vegetated Cays
Wave Set-Up
INFRASTRUCTURE AND REEF ISLANDS
607