may record several such events. Accordingly, in appropriate settings, the periodicity of relatively minor volcanic
events may be established in the fossil record with much
greater precision than previously permitted.”
How to identify if a reef is sediment-stressed
Globally, coral reefs are threatened by a plethora of
anthropogenic and natural factors, and many reefs face
multiple stressors (Hughes and Connell, 1999).
Disentangling sedimentation from the other stressors with
which it usually co-occurs is quite difficult (Fabricius,
2005). The following factors typically occur on reefs subject to sedimentation, with or without other stressors:
1. High siliciclastic content in reef sediment
2. High insoluble residue content in coral skeletons, particularly open-lattice species like massive Porites
3. High Ba/Ca ratio in coral skeletons
4. Low recruitment rates of corals, often resulting in size
distributions skewed to large colonies
5. Low species diversity of corals, relative to reference
sites in same region
6. Low percentage live coral cover, combined with high
cover of dead coral (high mortality index)
7. Predominance of stress-tolerant coral species and
growth forms, especially multilobate massive colonies
8. High-extension, low-density skeletal growth
Summary
Sediment input is one of the great killers of coral reefs.
The effect is accentuated, because in most situations the
sediment is accompanied by dissolved nutrients and
organic matter. In many cases, however, the source and
the nature of the stress may be identified using a variety
of geochemical techniques.
Acknowledgments
The senior author performed much of the work for this
article whilst in residence as a Temminck Fellow at the
Natural History Museum in Leiden, Netherlands.
Bibliography
Abdel-Salam, H. A., and Porter, J. W., 1988. Physiological effects
of sediment rejection on photosynthesis and respiration in three
Caribbean reef corals. In Proceedings of Sixth International
Coral Reef Symposium. Vol. 2, pp. 285–292.
Acevedo, R., and Morelock, J., 1988. Effects of terrigenous sediment influx on coral reef zonation in southwestern Puerto Rico.
In Proceedings of Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium.
Australia: Townsville, Vol. 2, pp. 189–194.
Acevedo, R., Morelock, J., and Olivieri, R. A., 1989. Modification
of coral reef zonation by terrigenous sediment stress. Palaios, 4,
92–100.
Adams, J. E., and Frenzel, H. N., 1950. Capitan Barrier Reef, Texas
and New Mexico. Journal of Geology, 58, 289–312.
Anderegg, D., Dodge, R. E., Swart, P. K., and Fisher, L., 1997. Barium chronologies from South Florida reef corals – environmental implications. In Proceedings of Eighth International Coral
Reef Symposium. Vol. 2, pp. 1725–1730.
Anthony, K. R., 1999. A tank system for studying benthic aquatic
organisms at predictable levels of turbidity and sedimentation:
case study examining coral growth. Limnology and Oceanography, 44, 1415–1422.
Anthony, K. R. N., 2000. Enhanced particle-feeding capacity of
corals on turbid reefs (Great Barrier Reef, Australia). Coral
Reefs, 19, 59–67.
Anthony, K. R. N., and Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 2004. Kinetics of
photoacclimation in corals. Oecologia, 134, 23–31.
Bak, R. P. M., 1978. Lethal and sublethal effects of dredging on reef
corals. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 9, 14–16.
Bak, R. P. M., 1983. Neoplasia, regeneration and growth in the reefbuilding coral Acropora palmata. Marine Biology, 77, 221–227.
Bak, R. P. M., and Elgershuizen, J. H. B. W., 1976. Patterns of oilsediment rejection in corals. Marine Biology, 37, 715–730.
Bak, R. P. M., and Steward-van Es, Y., 1980. Regeneration of superficial damage on the scleractinian corals Agaricia agaricites, F.
purpurae and Porites asteroides. Bulletin of Marine Science,
30, 883–887.
Barnard, L. A., Macintyre, I. G., and Pierce, J. W., 1974. Possible
environmental index in tropical reef corals. Nature, 252, 210–220.
Bastidas, C., and Garcia, E., 1997. Metal content in the reef coral
Porites astreoides: an evaluation of river influence and 35 years
of chronology. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 38, 899–907.
Bothner, M. H., Reynolds, R. L., Casso, M. A., Storlazzi, C. D., and
Field, M. E., 2006. Quantity, composition and source of sediment collected in sediment traps along the fringing coral reef
off Molokai, Hawaii. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 52, 1034–1047.
Brown, B. E., LeTissier, M. D. A., Scoffin, T. P., and Tudhope,
A. W., 1990. Evaluation of the environmental impact of dredging
on intertidal coral reefs at KO Phuket, Thailand, using ecological
and physiological parameters. Marine Ecology Progress Series,
65, 273–281.
Budd, A. F., Mann, K. O., and Guzmàn, H. M., 1993. Environmental
interpretation using insoluble residues within coral skeletons:
problems, pitfalls and preliminary results. Coral Reefs, 12, 31–42.
Calhoun, R. S., and Field, M. E., 2008. Sand composition and transport history on a fringing coral reef, Molokai, Hawaii. Journal of
Coastal Research, 24, 1151–1160.
Chansang, H., 1988. Coastal tin mining and marine pollution in
Thailand. Ambio, 17, 223–228.
Chansang, H., Boonyanate, P., and Charuchinda, M., 1981. Effect
of sedimentation from coastal mining on coral reefs on the northwestern coast of Phuket Island. In Proceedings of Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Thailand. Vol. 1, pp. 129–136.
Chou, L. M., 1997. The status of southeast Asian coral reefs. In Proceedings of Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium, Panama.
Vol. 1, pp. 317–321.
Cortes, J. N., and Risk, M. J., 1985. A reef under siltation stress:
Cahuita, Costa Rica. Bulletin of Marine Science, 36, 339–356.
Dallmeyer, D. G., Porter, J. W., and Smith, G. J., 1982. Effects of particulate peat on the behavior and physiology of the Jamaican reefbuilding coral Montastrea annularis. Marine Biology, 68, 229–234.
Darwin, C. R., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
London: Smith Elder.
David, C. P., 2003. Heavy metal concentrations in growth bands of
corals: a record of mine tailings input though time (Marinduque
Island, Philippines). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46, 187–196.
Davies, P. J., 1992. Are coral skeletons reliable recorders of sediment
regimes? A method for its investigation. In Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam. Vol. 1, 179–185.
Dikou, A., and van Woesik, R., 2006. Survival under chronic stress from
sediment load: spatial patterns of hard coral communities in the
southern islands of Singapore. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 52, 7–21.
Dodge, R. E., and Brass, G. W., 1984. Skeletal extension, density, and
calcification of a reef coral (Montastrea annularis): St. Croix, U.S.
Virgin Islands. Bulletin of Marine Science, 34, 288–307.
IMPACTS OF SEDIMENT ON CORAL REEFS
583
events may be established in the fossil record with much
greater precision than previously permitted.”
How to identify if a reef is sediment-stressed
Globally, coral reefs are threatened by a plethora of
anthropogenic and natural factors, and many reefs face
multiple stressors (Hughes and Connell, 1999).
Disentangling sedimentation from the other stressors with
which it usually co-occurs is quite difficult (Fabricius,
2005). The following factors typically occur on reefs subject to sedimentation, with or without other stressors:
1. High siliciclastic content in reef sediment
2. High insoluble residue content in coral skeletons, particularly open-lattice species like massive Porites
3. High Ba/Ca ratio in coral skeletons
4. Low recruitment rates of corals, often resulting in size
distributions skewed to large colonies
5. Low species diversity of corals, relative to reference
sites in same region
6. Low percentage live coral cover, combined with high
cover of dead coral (high mortality index)
7. Predominance of stress-tolerant coral species and
growth forms, especially multilobate massive colonies
8. High-extension, low-density skeletal growth
Summary
Sediment input is one of the great killers of coral reefs.
The effect is accentuated, because in most situations the
sediment is accompanied by dissolved nutrients and
organic matter. In many cases, however, the source and
the nature of the stress may be identified using a variety
of geochemical techniques.
Acknowledgments
The senior author performed much of the work for this
article whilst in residence as a Temminck Fellow at the
Natural History Museum in Leiden, Netherlands.
Bibliography
Abdel-Salam, H. A., and Porter, J. W., 1988. Physiological effects
of sediment rejection on photosynthesis and respiration in three
Caribbean reef corals. In Proceedings of Sixth International
Coral Reef Symposium. Vol. 2, pp. 285–292.
Acevedo, R., and Morelock, J., 1988. Effects of terrigenous sediment influx on coral reef zonation in southwestern Puerto Rico.
In Proceedings of Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium.
Australia: Townsville, Vol. 2, pp. 189–194.
Acevedo, R., Morelock, J., and Olivieri, R. A., 1989. Modification
of coral reef zonation by terrigenous sediment stress. Palaios, 4,
92–100.
Adams, J. E., and Frenzel, H. N., 1950. Capitan Barrier Reef, Texas
and New Mexico. Journal of Geology, 58, 289–312.
Anderegg, D., Dodge, R. E., Swart, P. K., and Fisher, L., 1997. Barium chronologies from South Florida reef corals – environmental implications. In Proceedings of Eighth International Coral
Reef Symposium. Vol. 2, pp. 1725–1730.
Anthony, K. R., 1999. A tank system for studying benthic aquatic
organisms at predictable levels of turbidity and sedimentation:
case study examining coral growth. Limnology and Oceanography, 44, 1415–1422.
Anthony, K. R. N., 2000. Enhanced particle-feeding capacity of
corals on turbid reefs (Great Barrier Reef, Australia). Coral
Reefs, 19, 59–67.
Anthony, K. R. N., and Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 2004. Kinetics of
photoacclimation in corals. Oecologia, 134, 23–31.
Bak, R. P. M., 1978. Lethal and sublethal effects of dredging on reef
corals. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 9, 14–16.
Bak, R. P. M., 1983. Neoplasia, regeneration and growth in the reefbuilding coral Acropora palmata. Marine Biology, 77, 221–227.
Bak, R. P. M., and Elgershuizen, J. H. B. W., 1976. Patterns of oilsediment rejection in corals. Marine Biology, 37, 715–730.
Bak, R. P. M., and Steward-van Es, Y., 1980. Regeneration of superficial damage on the scleractinian corals Agaricia agaricites, F.
purpurae and Porites asteroides. Bulletin of Marine Science,
30, 883–887.
Barnard, L. A., Macintyre, I. G., and Pierce, J. W., 1974. Possible
environmental index in tropical reef corals. Nature, 252, 210–220.
Bastidas, C., and Garcia, E., 1997. Metal content in the reef coral
Porites astreoides: an evaluation of river influence and 35 years
of chronology. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 38, 899–907.
Bothner, M. H., Reynolds, R. L., Casso, M. A., Storlazzi, C. D., and
Field, M. E., 2006. Quantity, composition and source of sediment collected in sediment traps along the fringing coral reef
off Molokai, Hawaii. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 52, 1034–1047.
Brown, B. E., LeTissier, M. D. A., Scoffin, T. P., and Tudhope,
A. W., 1990. Evaluation of the environmental impact of dredging
on intertidal coral reefs at KO Phuket, Thailand, using ecological
and physiological parameters. Marine Ecology Progress Series,
65, 273–281.
Budd, A. F., Mann, K. O., and Guzmàn, H. M., 1993. Environmental
interpretation using insoluble residues within coral skeletons:
problems, pitfalls and preliminary results. Coral Reefs, 12, 31–42.
Calhoun, R. S., and Field, M. E., 2008. Sand composition and transport history on a fringing coral reef, Molokai, Hawaii. Journal of
Coastal Research, 24, 1151–1160.
Chansang, H., 1988. Coastal tin mining and marine pollution in
Thailand. Ambio, 17, 223–228.
Chansang, H., Boonyanate, P., and Charuchinda, M., 1981. Effect
of sedimentation from coastal mining on coral reefs on the northwestern coast of Phuket Island. In Proceedings of Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Thailand. Vol. 1, pp. 129–136.
Chou, L. M., 1997. The status of southeast Asian coral reefs. In Proceedings of Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium, Panama.
Vol. 1, pp. 317–321.
Cortes, J. N., and Risk, M. J., 1985. A reef under siltation stress:
Cahuita, Costa Rica. Bulletin of Marine Science, 36, 339–356.
Dallmeyer, D. G., Porter, J. W., and Smith, G. J., 1982. Effects of particulate peat on the behavior and physiology of the Jamaican reefbuilding coral Montastrea annularis. Marine Biology, 68, 229–234.
Darwin, C. R., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
London: Smith Elder.
David, C. P., 2003. Heavy metal concentrations in growth bands of
corals: a record of mine tailings input though time (Marinduque
Island, Philippines). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46, 187–196.
Davies, P. J., 1992. Are coral skeletons reliable recorders of sediment
regimes? A method for its investigation. In Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam. Vol. 1, 179–185.
Dikou, A., and van Woesik, R., 2006. Survival under chronic stress from
sediment load: spatial patterns of hard coral communities in the
southern islands of Singapore. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 52, 7–21.
Dodge, R. E., and Brass, G. W., 1984. Skeletal extension, density, and
calcification of a reef coral (Montastrea annularis): St. Croix, U.S.
Virgin Islands. Bulletin of Marine Science, 34, 288–307.
IMPACTS OF SEDIMENT ON CORAL REEFS
583