Some of the most important investigations included
assessment of reef metabolism, trophic relationships,
energy and materials flux, nutrient flux, calcification,
and bioerosion rates of reefs by multidisciplinary teams
including Odum and Odum (1955) and later (Figure 6;
Johannes et al., 1972) during the Symbios/Alpha Helix
expedition at Japtan Reef. In 1976, a coral reef taxonomy
workshop was convened at Enewetak under the guidance
of John Wells (Figure 7). Terrestrial environments have
also been surveyed including soils, vegetation, reptiles,
seabirds, shorebirds, insects, mammals, crustaceans, and
other arthropods. Several islands along the southwest
perimeter were also proposed as reserves and were in
excellent health and mostly removed from the nuclear testing sites at the atoll.
Summary and Conclusions
During a 40-year period, Enewetak served as World War II
battleground, a U.S. nuclear testing proving ground, and
an important atoll field station for marine scientists including geologists, biologists, and ecologists. The world’s longest atoll drill cores were collected there and led to the
confirmation of Darwin’s subsidence theory on atoll evolution and documented the long history of living reefs
among the world’s largest and oldest atolls. However,
the Enewetak people, who likely lived at the atoll for thousands of years, suffered greatly during the same time
period and struggled against a world power to return
home. Of all the questions left unanswered will be the fate
of the people, the impact of the past nuclear testing on their
atoll, and the uncertain future of both during the climate
now beginning wash up on her shores.
Hopefully, scientists, governments, and islander residents alike will continue to cooperate and work towards
a better understanding of the future while never forgetting
the past. In one respect, the Enewetak people were able to
return to their home atoll because it was not the first to be
assaulted, and was larger and better able to withstand the
impacts of the nuclear era vis-à-vis Bikini Atoll. In early
2009, Bikini was nominated for World Heritage as
a cultural site for similar reasons that the Hiroshima Dome
of Japan was recently inscribed – so that the World will
never forget the role that her people and atoll played during the emerging nuclear age, the hardships they suffered,
and the future lesson that such history should never be forgotten and repeated. The decision on the nomination will
be made within a year. Perhaps soon Enewetak will be
similarly recognized for its role and success in demonstrating how her people were able to return home and survive
against great odds and serve as inspiration for others.
Bibliography
Argonne National Laboratory, EVS, 2005. Plutonium 239. Human
health fact sheet, August, 2005. 2p.
Atkinson, M. J., 1987. Oceanography of Enewetak Atoll. In
Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.), The Natural History of Enewetak
Atoll. United States Department of Energy, Office of Energy
Research, Office of Health and Environmental Research, and
Ecological Research Division. DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 1, The
Ecosystems,
Environments,
Biotas,
and
Processes,
(DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge,
Tennessee, pp. 57–70.
Berger, A. J., 1987. Avifuana of Enewetak Atoll. In Devaney, D. M.,
et al. (eds.), The Natural History of Enewetak Atoll. United
States Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Office
of Health and Environmental Research, and Ecological Research
Division. DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 1, The Ecosystems, Environments, Biotas, and Processes, (DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge, Tennessee, pp. 215–228.
Burch, B. L., 1987. Introduction. In Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.),
The Natural History of Enewetak Atoll. United States Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Office of Health
and Environmental Research, and Ecological Research Division.
DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 2 Biogeography and Systematics,
(DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge,
Tennessee, pp. xvii–xviii.
Colin, P. L., 1987. Subtidal environments and ecology of Enewetak
Atoll. In Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.), The Natural History of
Enewetak Atoll. United States Department of Energy, Office of
Energy Research, Office of Health and Environmental Research,
and Ecological Research Division. DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 1,
The Ecosystems, Environments, Biotas, and Processes,
(DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge,
Tennessee, pp. 91–138.
Darwin, C., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
New York: D. Appleton.
Devaney, D. M., and Lang, J. C., 1987. Scleractinia (stony corals) of
Enewetak Atoll. In Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.), The Natural
History of Enewetak Atoll. United States Department of Energy,
Office of Energy Research, Office of Health and Environmental
Research, and Ecological Research Division. DOE/EV00703T1-Vol. 2 Biogeography and Systematics, (DE87006110). NTIS
Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge, Tennessee, pp. 67–76.
Devaney, D. M., Reese, E. S., Burch, B. L., and Helfrich, P. (eds.),
1987. The Natural History of Enewetak Atoll. (two volumes). United
States Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Office of
Health and Environmental Research, and Ecological Research Division. DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 1 and 2 (DE87006110). NTIS Energy
Distribution Center, Oakridge, Tennessee, 228p, 343p.
Emery, K. O., Tracey, J. I., Jr., and Ladd, H. S., 1954. Geology of
Bikini and nearby atolls. U.S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 260-A, 1–265.
Helfrich, P., and. Ray, R., 1987. Research at Enewetak Atoll:
A historical perspective. In Devaney, D. M. et al. (eds.), The Natural History of Enewetak Atoll. United States Department of
Energy, Office of Energy Research, Office of Health and Environmental Research, and Ecological Research Division. DOE/
EV00703-T1-Vol. 1, The Ecosystems, Environments, Biotas,
and Processes, (DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge, Tennessee, pp. 1–16.
Hiatt, R. W., and Strassburg, D. W., 1960. Ecological relationships
of the fish fauna on coral reefs of the Marshall Islands. Ecological Monographs, 30, 65–127.
Johannes, R. E., Alberts, J., D’Elia, C., Kinzie, R. A., Pomeroy,
L. R., Sottile, W., Wiebe, W., Marsh, J. A., Helfrich, P., Maragos,
J., Meyer, J., Smith, S., Crabtree, D., Roth, A., McCloskey, L. R.,
Betzer, S. Marshall, N., Pilson, M. E. Q., Telek, G., Clutter,
R. L., DuPaul, W. D., Webb, K. L. and Wells, J., Jr., 1972. The
metabolism of some coral reef communities: a team study of
nutrient and energy flux at Eniwetok. BioScience, 22(9),
541–544.
Kay, E. A., and Johnson, S., 1978. Mollusca of Enewetak Atoll, In
Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.), The Natural History of Enewetak
Atoll. United States Department of Energy, Office of Energy
Research, Office of Health and Environmental Research, and
390
ENEWETAK ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS
assessment of reef metabolism, trophic relationships,
energy and materials flux, nutrient flux, calcification,
and bioerosion rates of reefs by multidisciplinary teams
including Odum and Odum (1955) and later (Figure 6;
Johannes et al., 1972) during the Symbios/Alpha Helix
expedition at Japtan Reef. In 1976, a coral reef taxonomy
workshop was convened at Enewetak under the guidance
of John Wells (Figure 7). Terrestrial environments have
also been surveyed including soils, vegetation, reptiles,
seabirds, shorebirds, insects, mammals, crustaceans, and
other arthropods. Several islands along the southwest
perimeter were also proposed as reserves and were in
excellent health and mostly removed from the nuclear testing sites at the atoll.
Summary and Conclusions
During a 40-year period, Enewetak served as World War II
battleground, a U.S. nuclear testing proving ground, and
an important atoll field station for marine scientists including geologists, biologists, and ecologists. The world’s longest atoll drill cores were collected there and led to the
confirmation of Darwin’s subsidence theory on atoll evolution and documented the long history of living reefs
among the world’s largest and oldest atolls. However,
the Enewetak people, who likely lived at the atoll for thousands of years, suffered greatly during the same time
period and struggled against a world power to return
home. Of all the questions left unanswered will be the fate
of the people, the impact of the past nuclear testing on their
atoll, and the uncertain future of both during the climate
now beginning wash up on her shores.
Hopefully, scientists, governments, and islander residents alike will continue to cooperate and work towards
a better understanding of the future while never forgetting
the past. In one respect, the Enewetak people were able to
return to their home atoll because it was not the first to be
assaulted, and was larger and better able to withstand the
impacts of the nuclear era vis-à-vis Bikini Atoll. In early
2009, Bikini was nominated for World Heritage as
a cultural site for similar reasons that the Hiroshima Dome
of Japan was recently inscribed – so that the World will
never forget the role that her people and atoll played during the emerging nuclear age, the hardships they suffered,
and the future lesson that such history should never be forgotten and repeated. The decision on the nomination will
be made within a year. Perhaps soon Enewetak will be
similarly recognized for its role and success in demonstrating how her people were able to return home and survive
against great odds and serve as inspiration for others.
Bibliography
Argonne National Laboratory, EVS, 2005. Plutonium 239. Human
health fact sheet, August, 2005. 2p.
Atkinson, M. J., 1987. Oceanography of Enewetak Atoll. In
Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.), The Natural History of Enewetak
Atoll. United States Department of Energy, Office of Energy
Research, Office of Health and Environmental Research, and
Ecological Research Division. DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 1, The
Ecosystems,
Environments,
Biotas,
and
Processes,
(DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge,
Tennessee, pp. 57–70.
Berger, A. J., 1987. Avifuana of Enewetak Atoll. In Devaney, D. M.,
et al. (eds.), The Natural History of Enewetak Atoll. United
States Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Office
of Health and Environmental Research, and Ecological Research
Division. DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 1, The Ecosystems, Environments, Biotas, and Processes, (DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge, Tennessee, pp. 215–228.
Burch, B. L., 1987. Introduction. In Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.),
The Natural History of Enewetak Atoll. United States Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Office of Health
and Environmental Research, and Ecological Research Division.
DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 2 Biogeography and Systematics,
(DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge,
Tennessee, pp. xvii–xviii.
Colin, P. L., 1987. Subtidal environments and ecology of Enewetak
Atoll. In Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.), The Natural History of
Enewetak Atoll. United States Department of Energy, Office of
Energy Research, Office of Health and Environmental Research,
and Ecological Research Division. DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 1,
The Ecosystems, Environments, Biotas, and Processes,
(DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge,
Tennessee, pp. 91–138.
Darwin, C., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
New York: D. Appleton.
Devaney, D. M., and Lang, J. C., 1987. Scleractinia (stony corals) of
Enewetak Atoll. In Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.), The Natural
History of Enewetak Atoll. United States Department of Energy,
Office of Energy Research, Office of Health and Environmental
Research, and Ecological Research Division. DOE/EV00703T1-Vol. 2 Biogeography and Systematics, (DE87006110). NTIS
Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge, Tennessee, pp. 67–76.
Devaney, D. M., Reese, E. S., Burch, B. L., and Helfrich, P. (eds.),
1987. The Natural History of Enewetak Atoll. (two volumes). United
States Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Office of
Health and Environmental Research, and Ecological Research Division. DOE/EV00703-T1-Vol. 1 and 2 (DE87006110). NTIS Energy
Distribution Center, Oakridge, Tennessee, 228p, 343p.
Emery, K. O., Tracey, J. I., Jr., and Ladd, H. S., 1954. Geology of
Bikini and nearby atolls. U.S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 260-A, 1–265.
Helfrich, P., and. Ray, R., 1987. Research at Enewetak Atoll:
A historical perspective. In Devaney, D. M. et al. (eds.), The Natural History of Enewetak Atoll. United States Department of
Energy, Office of Energy Research, Office of Health and Environmental Research, and Ecological Research Division. DOE/
EV00703-T1-Vol. 1, The Ecosystems, Environments, Biotas,
and Processes, (DE87006110). NTIS Energy Distribution Center, Oakridge, Tennessee, pp. 1–16.
Hiatt, R. W., and Strassburg, D. W., 1960. Ecological relationships
of the fish fauna on coral reefs of the Marshall Islands. Ecological Monographs, 30, 65–127.
Johannes, R. E., Alberts, J., D’Elia, C., Kinzie, R. A., Pomeroy,
L. R., Sottile, W., Wiebe, W., Marsh, J. A., Helfrich, P., Maragos,
J., Meyer, J., Smith, S., Crabtree, D., Roth, A., McCloskey, L. R.,
Betzer, S. Marshall, N., Pilson, M. E. Q., Telek, G., Clutter,
R. L., DuPaul, W. D., Webb, K. L. and Wells, J., Jr., 1972. The
metabolism of some coral reef communities: a team study of
nutrient and energy flux at Eniwetok. BioScience, 22(9),
541–544.
Kay, E. A., and Johnson, S., 1978. Mollusca of Enewetak Atoll, In
Devaney, D. M., et al. (eds.), The Natural History of Enewetak
Atoll. United States Department of Energy, Office of Energy
Research, Office of Health and Environmental Research, and
390
ENEWETAK ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS