being uplifted while in the Nicobars more than 200 km
2 of
reef was damaged as a result of subsidence and sedimentation (Wilkinson, 2008). While the loss of shallow water
corals was significant it should be recognised that there
is a series of uplifted marine terraces evident throughout
the coast of South Andaman Island with observations dating back to the mid 1800s (Bilham et al., 2005) confirming
an active seismic history in the area. Reports of human
damage to reefs are restricted to the Thai coastline and
include tin dredging, land reclamation and associated
dredging and tourism-related activities (Brown, 2007).
Global warming also constitutes a serious threat to all
reefs in the Andaman Sea though factors induced by climate change such as rising sea level (Church et al.,
2004) and alteration of the timing of the Asian monsoon
onset (Kitoh et al., 1997) might act to mitigate bleaching
stresses through reduction in light levels and reduction
of both temperature and light levels, respectively, at
a time of year when these stresses are maximal. Little is
known about the aragonite saturation state of waters in
the Andaman Sea and so the susceptibility of corals to
ocean acidification is, at this stage, unknown.
Interestingly, the shallow reefs around the coast of
Phuket, particularly those on the outer reef edge, are currently displaying the highest cover they have ever shown
in their 30 year monitoring history (Brown – pers. comm.)
which may simply be a feature of steadily rising sea levels.
There has also been no major bleaching and mortality
since 1995 at these sites and the generally good status of
these shallow reefs is also reflected at regularly monitored
sub-tidal reef locations on the western coast of Thailand
where reef condition is reported to have improved over
recent years (Wilkinson, 2008). A recent survey of coral
disease in Thai waters revealed a very low incidence of
disease compared to that noted in the Caribbean and Great
Barrier Reef (Kenkel, 2008).
Summary
While the steadily rising sea temperature may be exerting
an effect on coral growth rates of corals in the Andaman
Sea it does appear that their history of exposure to physical
rigours and resultant robust physiology may enhance their
resistance to climate change. These factors, coupled with
oceanographic features such as dynamic water circulation
and reduced temperatures/light at critical times of the year,
could lead to these turbid reefs being protected from some
of the most imminent effects of global warming though the
most recent mass bleaching of corals in May 2010 will
prove a severe challenge to the resilience capabilities of
these reefs.
Bibliography
Behera, S. K., Luo, J. J., Yamagata, T., 2008. Unusual IOD event of
2007. Geophysical Research Letters, 35, L14S11, doi:10.1029/
2008GLO34122.
Bilham, R., Engdahl, E. R., Feld, N., Satyabalam, S. P., 2005. Partial
and complete rupture of the Indo-Andaman Plate boundary
1847–2004. Seismological Research Letters, 76, 299–311.
Brown, B. E., 2007. Coral reefs of the Andaman Sea – an integrated
perspective. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual
Review, 45, 173–194.
Brown, B. E., Dunne, R. P., Chansang, H., 1996. Coral bleaching
relative to elevated seawater temperature in the Andaman Sea
(Indian Ocean) over the last 50 years. Coral Reefs, 15, 151–152.
Brown, B. E., Downs, C. A., Dunne, R. P., Gibb, S. W., 2002a.
Exploring the basis of thermotolerance in the reef coral Goniastrea
aspera. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 242, 119–129.
Brown, B. E., Dunne, R. P., Goodson, M. S., Douglas, A. E., 2002b.
Experience shapes the susceptibility of a reef coral to bleaching.
Coral Reefs, 21, 119–126.
Church, J. A., White, N. J., Coleman, R., Lambeck, K.,
Mitrovica J. X., 2004. Estimates of the regional distribution of
sea level rise over the 1950–2000 period. Journal of Climate,
17, 2609–2625.
Curry, J. R., 2005. Tectonics and history of the Andaman Sea
region. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 25, 187–232.
Dunne, R. P., Brown, B. E., 2001. The influence of solar radiation
on bleaching of shallow water reef corals in the Andaman Sea,
1993–1998. Coral Reefs, 20, 201–210.
Goes, J. I., Thoppil, P. G., Gomes, H. R., Fasullo, J. T., 2005.
Warming of the Eurasian landmass is making the Arabian Sea
more productive. Science, 308, 545–547.
Kenkel, C. D., 2008. Coral disease: baseline surveys in the
Andaman Sea and Gulf of Thailand. Phuket Marine Biological
Center Research Bulletin, 69, 43–53.
Kitoh, A., Yukimoto, S., Noda, A., Motoi, T., 1997. Simulated
changes in the Asian monsoon at times of increased atmosphere
CO 2 . Journal of the Meterological Society of Japan, 75,
1019–1031.
LaJeunesse, T. C., Pettay, D. T., Sampayo, E. M., Phongsuwan, N.,
Brown, B., Obura, D. O., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Fitt, W. K., 2010.
Long-standing environmental conditions, geographical isolation
and host-symbiont specificity influence the relative ecological;
dominance and genetic diversification of coral endosymbionts
in the genus Symbiodinium. Journal of Biogeography,
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02273.x.
Meltzner, A. J., Sieh, K., Abrams, M., Agnew, D. C., Hudnut, K. W.,
Avouac, J. P., Natawidjaja, D. H., 2006. Uplift and subsidence
associated with the great Aceh-Andaman earthquake of 2004.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, B02407, doi:10.1029/
2005JB003891.
Osborne, A. R., Burch, T. L., 1980. Internal solitons in the Andaman
Sea. Science, 208, 451–460.
Pettay, D. T., LaJeunesse, T. C., 2009. Microsatellite loci for
assessing genetic diversity, dispersal and clonality of coral
symbonts in ‘stress-tolerant’ clade D Symbiodinium. Molecular
Genetic Resources, doi:10.1111/j.1755–0998.2009.02561.x.
Phongsuwan, N., 2007. Re-orientated coral growth following the
Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004. Coral Reefs, 26, 459.
Phongsuwan, N., Chansang, H., 1992. Assessment of coral communities in the Andaman Sea (Thailand). In Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium 1, 114–121.
Potemra, J. T., Luther, M. E., O’Brien, J. J., 1991. The seasonal circulation of the upper Bay of Bengal. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 96, 12667–12683.
Rao, S. A., Luo, J. J., Behera, S. K., Yamagata, T., 2009. Generation
and termination of Indian Ocean Dipole events in 2003, 2006
and 2007. Climate Dynamics, doi:10.1007/ss00382–008–
0498-z.
Satapoomin, U., Phongsuwan, N., Brown, B. E., 2006.
A preliminary synopsis of the effects of the Indian Ocean tsunami on the coral reefs of western Thailand. Phuket Marine Biological Center Research Bulletin, 67, 77–80.
Scoffin, T. P., Tudhope, A. W., Brown, B. E., Chansang, H.,
Cheeney, R. F., 1992. Patterns and possible environmental
350
EASTERN INDIAN OCEAN – NORTHERN SECTOR
2 of
reef was damaged as a result of subsidence and sedimentation (Wilkinson, 2008). While the loss of shallow water
corals was significant it should be recognised that there
is a series of uplifted marine terraces evident throughout
the coast of South Andaman Island with observations dating back to the mid 1800s (Bilham et al., 2005) confirming
an active seismic history in the area. Reports of human
damage to reefs are restricted to the Thai coastline and
include tin dredging, land reclamation and associated
dredging and tourism-related activities (Brown, 2007).
Global warming also constitutes a serious threat to all
reefs in the Andaman Sea though factors induced by climate change such as rising sea level (Church et al.,
2004) and alteration of the timing of the Asian monsoon
onset (Kitoh et al., 1997) might act to mitigate bleaching
stresses through reduction in light levels and reduction
of both temperature and light levels, respectively, at
a time of year when these stresses are maximal. Little is
known about the aragonite saturation state of waters in
the Andaman Sea and so the susceptibility of corals to
ocean acidification is, at this stage, unknown.
Interestingly, the shallow reefs around the coast of
Phuket, particularly those on the outer reef edge, are currently displaying the highest cover they have ever shown
in their 30 year monitoring history (Brown – pers. comm.)
which may simply be a feature of steadily rising sea levels.
There has also been no major bleaching and mortality
since 1995 at these sites and the generally good status of
these shallow reefs is also reflected at regularly monitored
sub-tidal reef locations on the western coast of Thailand
where reef condition is reported to have improved over
recent years (Wilkinson, 2008). A recent survey of coral
disease in Thai waters revealed a very low incidence of
disease compared to that noted in the Caribbean and Great
Barrier Reef (Kenkel, 2008).
Summary
While the steadily rising sea temperature may be exerting
an effect on coral growth rates of corals in the Andaman
Sea it does appear that their history of exposure to physical
rigours and resultant robust physiology may enhance their
resistance to climate change. These factors, coupled with
oceanographic features such as dynamic water circulation
and reduced temperatures/light at critical times of the year,
could lead to these turbid reefs being protected from some
of the most imminent effects of global warming though the
most recent mass bleaching of corals in May 2010 will
prove a severe challenge to the resilience capabilities of
these reefs.
Bibliography
Behera, S. K., Luo, J. J., Yamagata, T., 2008. Unusual IOD event of
2007. Geophysical Research Letters, 35, L14S11, doi:10.1029/
2008GLO34122.
Bilham, R., Engdahl, E. R., Feld, N., Satyabalam, S. P., 2005. Partial
and complete rupture of the Indo-Andaman Plate boundary
1847–2004. Seismological Research Letters, 76, 299–311.
Brown, B. E., 2007. Coral reefs of the Andaman Sea – an integrated
perspective. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual
Review, 45, 173–194.
Brown, B. E., Dunne, R. P., Chansang, H., 1996. Coral bleaching
relative to elevated seawater temperature in the Andaman Sea
(Indian Ocean) over the last 50 years. Coral Reefs, 15, 151–152.
Brown, B. E., Downs, C. A., Dunne, R. P., Gibb, S. W., 2002a.
Exploring the basis of thermotolerance in the reef coral Goniastrea
aspera. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 242, 119–129.
Brown, B. E., Dunne, R. P., Goodson, M. S., Douglas, A. E., 2002b.
Experience shapes the susceptibility of a reef coral to bleaching.
Coral Reefs, 21, 119–126.
Church, J. A., White, N. J., Coleman, R., Lambeck, K.,
Mitrovica J. X., 2004. Estimates of the regional distribution of
sea level rise over the 1950–2000 period. Journal of Climate,
17, 2609–2625.
Curry, J. R., 2005. Tectonics and history of the Andaman Sea
region. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 25, 187–232.
Dunne, R. P., Brown, B. E., 2001. The influence of solar radiation
on bleaching of shallow water reef corals in the Andaman Sea,
1993–1998. Coral Reefs, 20, 201–210.
Goes, J. I., Thoppil, P. G., Gomes, H. R., Fasullo, J. T., 2005.
Warming of the Eurasian landmass is making the Arabian Sea
more productive. Science, 308, 545–547.
Kenkel, C. D., 2008. Coral disease: baseline surveys in the
Andaman Sea and Gulf of Thailand. Phuket Marine Biological
Center Research Bulletin, 69, 43–53.
Kitoh, A., Yukimoto, S., Noda, A., Motoi, T., 1997. Simulated
changes in the Asian monsoon at times of increased atmosphere
CO 2 . Journal of the Meterological Society of Japan, 75,
1019–1031.
LaJeunesse, T. C., Pettay, D. T., Sampayo, E. M., Phongsuwan, N.,
Brown, B., Obura, D. O., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Fitt, W. K., 2010.
Long-standing environmental conditions, geographical isolation
and host-symbiont specificity influence the relative ecological;
dominance and genetic diversification of coral endosymbionts
in the genus Symbiodinium. Journal of Biogeography,
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02273.x.
Meltzner, A. J., Sieh, K., Abrams, M., Agnew, D. C., Hudnut, K. W.,
Avouac, J. P., Natawidjaja, D. H., 2006. Uplift and subsidence
associated with the great Aceh-Andaman earthquake of 2004.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, B02407, doi:10.1029/
2005JB003891.
Osborne, A. R., Burch, T. L., 1980. Internal solitons in the Andaman
Sea. Science, 208, 451–460.
Pettay, D. T., LaJeunesse, T. C., 2009. Microsatellite loci for
assessing genetic diversity, dispersal and clonality of coral
symbonts in ‘stress-tolerant’ clade D Symbiodinium. Molecular
Genetic Resources, doi:10.1111/j.1755–0998.2009.02561.x.
Phongsuwan, N., 2007. Re-orientated coral growth following the
Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004. Coral Reefs, 26, 459.
Phongsuwan, N., Chansang, H., 1992. Assessment of coral communities in the Andaman Sea (Thailand). In Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium 1, 114–121.
Potemra, J. T., Luther, M. E., O’Brien, J. J., 1991. The seasonal circulation of the upper Bay of Bengal. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 96, 12667–12683.
Rao, S. A., Luo, J. J., Behera, S. K., Yamagata, T., 2009. Generation
and termination of Indian Ocean Dipole events in 2003, 2006
and 2007. Climate Dynamics, doi:10.1007/ss00382–008–
0498-z.
Satapoomin, U., Phongsuwan, N., Brown, B. E., 2006.
A preliminary synopsis of the effects of the Indian Ocean tsunami on the coral reefs of western Thailand. Phuket Marine Biological Center Research Bulletin, 67, 77–80.
Scoffin, T. P., Tudhope, A. W., Brown, B. E., Chansang, H.,
Cheeney, R. F., 1992. Patterns and possible environmental
350
EASTERN INDIAN OCEAN – NORTHERN SECTOR