controls of skeletogenesis of Porites lutea, South Thailand.
Coral Reefs, 11, 1–11.
Spalding, M. D., Ravilious, C., Green, E. P., 2001. World Atlas of
Coral Reefs. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Tanzil, J. T. I., Brown, B. E., Tudhope, A. W., Dunne, R. P., 2009.
Decline in skeletal growth of the coral Porites lutea from the
Andaman Sea, South Thailand over the period 1984–2005.
Coral Reefs, doi:10.1007/500338–0080457–5.
Turak, E., Veron, C., Sanpanich, K., 2005. Coral reef status after
26th December 2004 tsunami. In Allen, R. A., and Stone, G. S.
(eds.), Final Technical Report Rapid Assessment Survey of Tsunami-affected Reefs of Thailand. Boston: New England Aquarium, pp. 16–30.
Webster, P. J., Moore, A. M., Loschnigg, J. P., Lebel, R. R., 1999.
Coupled ocean-atmosphere dynamics in the Indian Ocean during
1997–98. Nature, 401, 356–360.
Wilkinson, C., 2008. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2008.
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and Reef and Rainforest
Research Centre, Townsville, Australia.
Yesaki, M., Jantarapagdee, P., 1981. Wind stress and sea temperature changes off the west coast of Thailand. In Special Publication on the Occasion of the 10th Anniversary of Phuket Marine
Biological Center, Phuket, Thailand: Phuket Marine Biological
Center, 27–42.
Cross-references
Coral Reefs of India
Indian Ocean Reefs
Tsunami
EASTERN TROPICAL PACIFIC CORAL REEFS
Jorge Cortés
Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San José,
Costa Rica
Introduction
Background
In his coral reef book of 1842, Charles Darwin indicated
that there were no coral reefs in the Eastern Tropical Pacific
(ETP). Afterward, reef-building corals from the region were
described (e.g., Verrill, 1870; Pourtalès, 1875; Crossland,
1927; Durham and Barnard, 1952; Durham, 1966), but
the idea that there were no coral reefs in the region persisted
(Stoddart, 1969) until the early 1970s when Peter W. Glynn
documented coral reefs in Panamá (Glynn et al., 1972),
Colombia (Glynn et al., 1982), Galápagos (Glynn and Wellington, 1983), and Costa Rica (Glynn et al., 1983). We now
know that coral reefs are present in the region and many
have been described, including those from México
(Reyes-Bonilla, 2003), Clipperton Atoll (Glynn et al.,
1996), El Salvador (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza, 2003),
Costa Rica (Cortés and Jiménez, 2003), Panamá (Maté,
2003), Colombia (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel, 2003), and
Ecuador (Glynn, 2003). Recently, the coral reefs of Pacific
Nicaragua were studied and extensive areas located (J.J.
Alvarado, personal communication 2009).
The ETP extends from the southern end of the Gulf of
California, México (~23–25
N) to the Gulf of Guayaquil,
Ecuador (~2–4
S) (Reyes-Bonilla, 2003; Glynn, 2003;
Robertson and Cramer, 2009) (Figure 1). The region comprises eight countries with coral reefs: México, France, El
Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panamá, Colombia, and
Ecuador. The ETP has been divided into several biogeographic provinces (see review in Robertson and Cramer,
2009). Glynn and Ault (2000) divide the region into three
reef-coral provinces: (1) equatorial – mainland Costa Rica
to Ecuador, including the oceanic islands of Coco and
Galápagos; (2) northern – mainland México and the
Revillagigedo Islands; and (3) the island group – Malpelo
Island and Clipperton Atoll in the ETP, and Johnston
and Fanning islands in Hawaii. Based on the fish fauna,
Robertson and Cramer (2009) divide the ETP into two
coastal biogeographic provinces: (1) Cortez (Gulf of
California and southern end of the Baja Peninsula); and
(2) Panamic (central México to Ecuador); and one oceanic
province, Ocean Islands: the Revillagigedo group,
Clipperton Atoll, Isla del Coco, Isla Malpelo, and the
Galápagos Islands. For most groups of organisms, the
peak of species richness is the central Panamic province,
Costa Rica, and Panamá (Guzman et al., 2004; Robertson
and Cramer, 2009; Wehrtmann et al., 2009).
Coral reefs of the ETP are relatively small, discontinuous, and built by a few coral species but have a high diversity, complex food webs, and a long growth history
(Guzmán and Cortés, 1993; Cortés, 1997; Glynn, 2004).
They are the minimum expression of a coral reef (Cortés,
1997). In this section, I will describe the coral reefs of the
ETP, starting with the climate and oceanographic setting,
followed by the growth history of reefs in the region, modern-day reefs, and the main threats.
Physical environment
Climate
In the ETP the climate is controlled mainly by the north–
south displacement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ), a low-pressure belt just north of the equator (Alfaro,
2002; Amador et al., 2006; Alfaro, 2008). The coast of the
Americas along the ETP are characterized by dry regions
from México to northern Costa Rica and by wet to very
wet climates from there to southern Ecuador (Taylor and
Alfaro, 2005). Off-shore regions north of 10
N and south
of 2
N are dry, and the oceanic islands arid. Within this
region, the ITCZ moves north and south carrying high precipitations, and at around 5
N is Isla del Coco, the only oceanic island in the region with lush tropical forest (Garrison,
2005; Alfaro, 2008). The dry season in the northern ETP
extends from December to April–May and it is due to the
southward displacement of the ITCZ (Alfaro, 2002; Taylor
and Alfaro, 2005; Amador et al., 2006).
Hydrography
The main currents in the ETP are responsible for the
prevailing oceanographic conditions and transport of
EASTERN TROPICAL PACIFIC CORAL REEFS
351
Coral Reefs, 11, 1–11.
Spalding, M. D., Ravilious, C., Green, E. P., 2001. World Atlas of
Coral Reefs. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Tanzil, J. T. I., Brown, B. E., Tudhope, A. W., Dunne, R. P., 2009.
Decline in skeletal growth of the coral Porites lutea from the
Andaman Sea, South Thailand over the period 1984–2005.
Coral Reefs, doi:10.1007/500338–0080457–5.
Turak, E., Veron, C., Sanpanich, K., 2005. Coral reef status after
26th December 2004 tsunami. In Allen, R. A., and Stone, G. S.
(eds.), Final Technical Report Rapid Assessment Survey of Tsunami-affected Reefs of Thailand. Boston: New England Aquarium, pp. 16–30.
Webster, P. J., Moore, A. M., Loschnigg, J. P., Lebel, R. R., 1999.
Coupled ocean-atmosphere dynamics in the Indian Ocean during
1997–98. Nature, 401, 356–360.
Wilkinson, C., 2008. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2008.
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and Reef and Rainforest
Research Centre, Townsville, Australia.
Yesaki, M., Jantarapagdee, P., 1981. Wind stress and sea temperature changes off the west coast of Thailand. In Special Publication on the Occasion of the 10th Anniversary of Phuket Marine
Biological Center, Phuket, Thailand: Phuket Marine Biological
Center, 27–42.
Cross-references
Coral Reefs of India
Indian Ocean Reefs
Tsunami
EASTERN TROPICAL PACIFIC CORAL REEFS
Jorge Cortés
Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San José,
Costa Rica
Introduction
Background
In his coral reef book of 1842, Charles Darwin indicated
that there were no coral reefs in the Eastern Tropical Pacific
(ETP). Afterward, reef-building corals from the region were
described (e.g., Verrill, 1870; Pourtalès, 1875; Crossland,
1927; Durham and Barnard, 1952; Durham, 1966), but
the idea that there were no coral reefs in the region persisted
(Stoddart, 1969) until the early 1970s when Peter W. Glynn
documented coral reefs in Panamá (Glynn et al., 1972),
Colombia (Glynn et al., 1982), Galápagos (Glynn and Wellington, 1983), and Costa Rica (Glynn et al., 1983). We now
know that coral reefs are present in the region and many
have been described, including those from México
(Reyes-Bonilla, 2003), Clipperton Atoll (Glynn et al.,
1996), El Salvador (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza, 2003),
Costa Rica (Cortés and Jiménez, 2003), Panamá (Maté,
2003), Colombia (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel, 2003), and
Ecuador (Glynn, 2003). Recently, the coral reefs of Pacific
Nicaragua were studied and extensive areas located (J.J.
Alvarado, personal communication 2009).
The ETP extends from the southern end of the Gulf of
California, México (~23–25
N) to the Gulf of Guayaquil,
Ecuador (~2–4
S) (Reyes-Bonilla, 2003; Glynn, 2003;
Robertson and Cramer, 2009) (Figure 1). The region comprises eight countries with coral reefs: México, France, El
Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panamá, Colombia, and
Ecuador. The ETP has been divided into several biogeographic provinces (see review in Robertson and Cramer,
2009). Glynn and Ault (2000) divide the region into three
reef-coral provinces: (1) equatorial – mainland Costa Rica
to Ecuador, including the oceanic islands of Coco and
Galápagos; (2) northern – mainland México and the
Revillagigedo Islands; and (3) the island group – Malpelo
Island and Clipperton Atoll in the ETP, and Johnston
and Fanning islands in Hawaii. Based on the fish fauna,
Robertson and Cramer (2009) divide the ETP into two
coastal biogeographic provinces: (1) Cortez (Gulf of
California and southern end of the Baja Peninsula); and
(2) Panamic (central México to Ecuador); and one oceanic
province, Ocean Islands: the Revillagigedo group,
Clipperton Atoll, Isla del Coco, Isla Malpelo, and the
Galápagos Islands. For most groups of organisms, the
peak of species richness is the central Panamic province,
Costa Rica, and Panamá (Guzman et al., 2004; Robertson
and Cramer, 2009; Wehrtmann et al., 2009).
Coral reefs of the ETP are relatively small, discontinuous, and built by a few coral species but have a high diversity, complex food webs, and a long growth history
(Guzmán and Cortés, 1993; Cortés, 1997; Glynn, 2004).
They are the minimum expression of a coral reef (Cortés,
1997). In this section, I will describe the coral reefs of the
ETP, starting with the climate and oceanographic setting,
followed by the growth history of reefs in the region, modern-day reefs, and the main threats.
Physical environment
Climate
In the ETP the climate is controlled mainly by the north–
south displacement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ), a low-pressure belt just north of the equator (Alfaro,
2002; Amador et al., 2006; Alfaro, 2008). The coast of the
Americas along the ETP are characterized by dry regions
from México to northern Costa Rica and by wet to very
wet climates from there to southern Ecuador (Taylor and
Alfaro, 2005). Off-shore regions north of 10
N and south
of 2
N are dry, and the oceanic islands arid. Within this
region, the ITCZ moves north and south carrying high precipitations, and at around 5
N is Isla del Coco, the only oceanic island in the region with lush tropical forest (Garrison,
2005; Alfaro, 2008). The dry season in the northern ETP
extends from December to April–May and it is due to the
southward displacement of the ITCZ (Alfaro, 2002; Taylor
and Alfaro, 2005; Amador et al., 2006).
Hydrography
The main currents in the ETP are responsible for the
prevailing oceanographic conditions and transport of
EASTERN TROPICAL PACIFIC CORAL REEFS
351