biodiversity”? In Proceedings of the 9th International Coral Reef
Symposium, Bali 2000, Vol. 1, pp. 185–192.
Wallace, C. C., Richards, Z., and Suharsono 2001 Regional distribution patterns of Acropora and their use in the conservation of
coral reefs in Indonesia. Indonesian Journal of Marine and
Coastal Resources, 4, 1–19.
Wallace, C.C., and Rosen, B. R. R., 2006. Diverse staghorn corals
(Acropora) in high-latitude Eocene assemblages: implications
for the evolution of modern diversity patterns of reef corals. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 273, 975–982.
Wallace, C. C., and Wolstenholme, J., 1998. Revision of the coral
genus Acropora (Scleractinia: Astrocoeniina: Acroporidae) in
Indonesia. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 123,
199–384.
Whitmore, T. C. (ed.), 1981. Wallace’s Line and Plate Tectonics.
Oxford: Clarendon
Whitmore, T. C. (ed.), 1987. Biogeographic Evolution of the Malay
Archipelago. Oxford: Clarendon.
Wilkinson, C. R. (ed.), 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2008. Status of the
Coral Reefs of the World. Townsville: Australian Institute of
Marine Science.
Wilkinson, C. R., Souter, D., and Goldberg, J. (eds.), 2006. Status of
Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries:2005. Townsville:
Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Wilson, M. E. J., 2008. Gobal and regional influences on equatorial
shallow-marine
carbonates
during
the
Cenozoic.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 265,
262–274.
Wilson, M. E. J., and Rosen, B. R., 1998. Implications of paucity of
corals in the Paleogene of SE Asia: plate tectonics or centre of
origin? In Hall, R., and Holloway, J. D. (eds.), Biogeography
and geological evolution of SE Asia. Leiden: Backbuys Publishers, pp. 165–195.
Cross-references
Conservation and Marine Protection Areas
Eastern Indian Ocean – Northern Sector
General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs
Global Ocean Circulation and Coral Reefs
Indonesian Reefs
Reef Interconnectivity/Larval Dispersal
Tsunami
Volcanic Disturbances and Coral Reefs
EASTERN CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS
Dennis Hubbard
Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH, USA
Synonyms
Holocene reefs of the SE Caribbean; Modern SE Caribbean reefs; SE Caribbean reefs
Definition
Eastern Caribbean Coral Reefs are biologically mediated
structures that have formed since the last lowstand of
sea level and are associated with islands and platforms
to the east and south of the Island of Hispañola in the
Caribbean Sea.
Reef types
The present-day Caribbean Sea was formed between 200
and 130 million years ago as the Caribbean Plate moved
eastward, forcing North and South America apart (Pindell
et al., 1988). The eastern Caribbean is defined on the north
by faults and islands, on the south by South America, and
to the east by the Antilles Arc and the Atlantic Ocean
(Figure 1). With a few notable exceptions, most islands
in the Antilles chain have igneous origins and steep slopes
that leave little opportunity for extensive barrier reef
formation.
For the purpose of this chapter, Caribbean reefs are
divided into three categories: fringing, barrier, and shelfedge reefs. This provides a simple frame of reference for
the discussion below, and is not proposed as an alternative
to any of the classification schemes that already exist.
Fringing reefs form along steep insular margins
(Figure 2). As a result, reefs are close to shore, and lagoons
are small and shallow (<100 m wide and <2 m deep).
Individual reefs rarely exceed a few hundred meters in
length. Where the foreshore slope is gentle or flat, barrier
reefs form 0.5–3 km from shore in front of well-developed
lagoons (Figure 3). They extend for 1–2 km alongshore
and effectively protect the bay from open-Caribbean processes. Their location is often tied to antecedent topographic benches, but they are also formed atop loose
rubble shoals dominated by bioclastic debris (Adey and
Burke, 1976) that may reflect an earlier phase of reef
development in which calcification and bioerosion were
in balance. Along the margins of many islands and shallow carbonate banks, shelf-edge reefs form stillsubmerged structures that range from thin veneers that
mimic antecedent topography to elevated rims that owe
their present shape to significant Holocene accretion
(Figure 4a). These features can sit seaward of shallower
reefs (e.g., Puerto Rico, Hubbard et al., 1997) or stand
alone, especially along the edges of submerged platforms
(e.g., Saba Bank, Macintyre, 1972). Regularly spaced
sand channels that are oriented downslope serve as
short-term repositories for excess sediment and as conduits for the offshore transport of sand, especially during
storms (Hubbard, 1992). Where they front steep islands
(e.g., Cane Bay on St. Croix), the greatest coral abundance
often occurs near the shelf edge where the adverse effects
of terrestrial runoff are reduced (Figure 4b; Hubbard et al.,
1990).
Oceanography and reef-community structure
Caribbean reef-crest communities tend to vary from massive algal ridges in the eastern Windward Islands, to
Acropora-dominated reef crests in the Leeward Islands
to mostly hardgrounds with scattered, massive corals and
fewer branching species to the far west (Adey and Burke,
1977; Geister, 1977). Adey and Burke (1977) demonstrated that wave energy and water quality were important
controls over what the reef-crest community looks like
and at what depths zonation boundaries occur. As
338
EASTERN CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS
Symposium, Bali 2000, Vol. 1, pp. 185–192.
Wallace, C. C., Richards, Z., and Suharsono 2001 Regional distribution patterns of Acropora and their use in the conservation of
coral reefs in Indonesia. Indonesian Journal of Marine and
Coastal Resources, 4, 1–19.
Wallace, C.C., and Rosen, B. R. R., 2006. Diverse staghorn corals
(Acropora) in high-latitude Eocene assemblages: implications
for the evolution of modern diversity patterns of reef corals. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 273, 975–982.
Wallace, C. C., and Wolstenholme, J., 1998. Revision of the coral
genus Acropora (Scleractinia: Astrocoeniina: Acroporidae) in
Indonesia. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 123,
199–384.
Whitmore, T. C. (ed.), 1981. Wallace’s Line and Plate Tectonics.
Oxford: Clarendon
Whitmore, T. C. (ed.), 1987. Biogeographic Evolution of the Malay
Archipelago. Oxford: Clarendon.
Wilkinson, C. R. (ed.), 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2008. Status of the
Coral Reefs of the World. Townsville: Australian Institute of
Marine Science.
Wilkinson, C. R., Souter, D., and Goldberg, J. (eds.), 2006. Status of
Coral Reefs in Tsunami Affected Countries:2005. Townsville:
Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Wilson, M. E. J., 2008. Gobal and regional influences on equatorial
shallow-marine
carbonates
during
the
Cenozoic.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 265,
262–274.
Wilson, M. E. J., and Rosen, B. R., 1998. Implications of paucity of
corals in the Paleogene of SE Asia: plate tectonics or centre of
origin? In Hall, R., and Holloway, J. D. (eds.), Biogeography
and geological evolution of SE Asia. Leiden: Backbuys Publishers, pp. 165–195.
Cross-references
Conservation and Marine Protection Areas
Eastern Indian Ocean – Northern Sector
General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs
Global Ocean Circulation and Coral Reefs
Indonesian Reefs
Reef Interconnectivity/Larval Dispersal
Tsunami
Volcanic Disturbances and Coral Reefs
EASTERN CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS
Dennis Hubbard
Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH, USA
Synonyms
Holocene reefs of the SE Caribbean; Modern SE Caribbean reefs; SE Caribbean reefs
Definition
Eastern Caribbean Coral Reefs are biologically mediated
structures that have formed since the last lowstand of
sea level and are associated with islands and platforms
to the east and south of the Island of Hispañola in the
Caribbean Sea.
Reef types
The present-day Caribbean Sea was formed between 200
and 130 million years ago as the Caribbean Plate moved
eastward, forcing North and South America apart (Pindell
et al., 1988). The eastern Caribbean is defined on the north
by faults and islands, on the south by South America, and
to the east by the Antilles Arc and the Atlantic Ocean
(Figure 1). With a few notable exceptions, most islands
in the Antilles chain have igneous origins and steep slopes
that leave little opportunity for extensive barrier reef
formation.
For the purpose of this chapter, Caribbean reefs are
divided into three categories: fringing, barrier, and shelfedge reefs. This provides a simple frame of reference for
the discussion below, and is not proposed as an alternative
to any of the classification schemes that already exist.
Fringing reefs form along steep insular margins
(Figure 2). As a result, reefs are close to shore, and lagoons
are small and shallow (<100 m wide and <2 m deep).
Individual reefs rarely exceed a few hundred meters in
length. Where the foreshore slope is gentle or flat, barrier
reefs form 0.5–3 km from shore in front of well-developed
lagoons (Figure 3). They extend for 1–2 km alongshore
and effectively protect the bay from open-Caribbean processes. Their location is often tied to antecedent topographic benches, but they are also formed atop loose
rubble shoals dominated by bioclastic debris (Adey and
Burke, 1976) that may reflect an earlier phase of reef
development in which calcification and bioerosion were
in balance. Along the margins of many islands and shallow carbonate banks, shelf-edge reefs form stillsubmerged structures that range from thin veneers that
mimic antecedent topography to elevated rims that owe
their present shape to significant Holocene accretion
(Figure 4a). These features can sit seaward of shallower
reefs (e.g., Puerto Rico, Hubbard et al., 1997) or stand
alone, especially along the edges of submerged platforms
(e.g., Saba Bank, Macintyre, 1972). Regularly spaced
sand channels that are oriented downslope serve as
short-term repositories for excess sediment and as conduits for the offshore transport of sand, especially during
storms (Hubbard, 1992). Where they front steep islands
(e.g., Cane Bay on St. Croix), the greatest coral abundance
often occurs near the shelf edge where the adverse effects
of terrestrial runoff are reduced (Figure 4b; Hubbard et al.,
1990).
Oceanography and reef-community structure
Caribbean reef-crest communities tend to vary from massive algal ridges in the eastern Windward Islands, to
Acropora-dominated reef crests in the Leeward Islands
to mostly hardgrounds with scattered, massive corals and
fewer branching species to the far west (Adey and Burke,
1977; Geister, 1977). Adey and Burke (1977) demonstrated that wave energy and water quality were important
controls over what the reef-crest community looks like
and at what depths zonation boundaries occur. As
338
EASTERN CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS