radiocarbon or by
230 Th/
234
U, a method precise to about
1% of the age (e.g., Edwards et al., 1989; Shen et al.,
2008). Combining
230
Th and density band counting can
date multiple relative sea-level changes recorded within
a dead coral head that is hundreds or even thousands of
years old (e.g., Zachaniasen et al., 1999).
Summary/outlook
Methods to document and measure coral reef emergence
and submergence are now well developed and comprise
an important contribution to the understanding of earthquake rupture and the subduction process. Coral micro
atolls record the details of both uplift and subsidence over
recent centuries or even millennia. Space-based GPS and
radar methods have greatly improved the temporal resolution of measurements and can measure horizontal strain as
well as vertical motions. With numerous scientists aware
of the scientific value of coseismically emerged and submerged coral reefs, it is likely that most future large events
will be measured adequately. Smaller ones are not likely to
be recognized and investigated unless they occur in an
area that is easily accessible or are located in an area of
particular scientific interest where GPS survey marks
already exist.
Bibliography
Amelung, F., Jonsson, S., Zebker, H., and Segall, P., 2000. Widespread uplift and “trapdoor” faulting on Galapagos volcanoes
observed with radar interferometry. Nature, 407, 993–996.
Benoit, M., and Dubois, J., 1971. The earthquake swarm in the New
Hebrides archipelago, August, 1965, recent crustal movements.
Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin, 9, 141–148.
Bilham, R., Engdahl, R., Feldl, N., and Satyabala, S. P., 2005, Partial and complete rupture of the Indo-Andaman plate boundary
1847–2004. Seismological Research Letters, 76, 299–311.
Briggs, R., Sieh, K., Meltzner, A., Natawidjaja, D., Galetzka, J.,
Suwargadi, B., Hsu, Y-J., Simons, M., Hananto, N., Suprihanto,
I., Prayudi, D., Avouac, J.-P., Prawriodirdjo, L., Bock, Y., 2006.
Deformation and slip along the Sunda megthrust during the great
March 2005 Nias-Simeulue earthquake. Science, 311, 1897–
1901, DOI: 10.1126/science.1122602.
Briggs, R. W., Sieh, K., Amidon, W. H., Galetzka, J., Prayudi, D.,
Suprihanto, I., Sastra, N., Suwargadi, B., Natawidjaja, D., and
Farr, T. G., 2008. Persistent elastic behavior above
a megathrust rupture patch: Nias island, West Sumatra. Journal
of Geophysical Research, 113, B12406, doi:10.1029/
2008JB005684.
Buddemeier, R. W., and Taylor, F. W., 1998. Chapter 4:
Sclerochronology. in Sowers, J. M., Noller, J. S.and Lettis,
W. R. (eds.), Dating and Earthquakes: Review of Quaternary
Geochronology and Its Application to Paleoseismology.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG/CR 5562:
2–43 - 2–66.
Calmant, S., Cabioch, G., Regnier, M., Pillet, R., and Pelletier, B.,
1999. Surrections cosismiques et subsidence intersismique
enregistrees par des coraux à Mallicolo (Vanuatu, Pacifique
sud-ouest). Comptes Rendus Academy Science, Paris, Sciences
de la Terre et des planètes, 328, 711–716.
Chen, J. K., Taylor, F. W., Edwards, R. L., Cheng, H., and Burr,
G. S., 1995. Recent emerged reef terraces of the Yenkahe resurgent block, Tanna, Vanuatu: Implications for volcanic, landslide,
and tsunami hazards. Journal of Geology, 103, 577–590.
Chlieh, M., Avouac, J.-P., Hjorleifsdottir, V., Song, T. -R. A., Ji, C.,
Sieh, K., Sladen, A., Hebert, H., Prawirodirdjo, L., Bock, Y., and
Galetzka, J., 2007. Coseismic slip and afterslip of the Great M w
9.15 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 2004, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 97, S152–S173, doi: 10.1785/
0120050631.
Colgan, M. W., and Malmquist, D. L., 1987. The Urvina Bay uplift:
A dry trek through a Galápagos coral reef. Oceanus, 30, 61–66.
Couffer, J. C., 1956. The disappearance of Urvina Bay. Natural History, 65, 378–383.
Dana, J. D., 1890. Corals and Coral Islands. 3rd edn., New York:
Dodd, Mead, 429 pp.
Darwin, C. R., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
Being the First Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle,
Under the Command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. During the Years
1832 to 1836. London: Smith Elder, 214 pp., 2 plates.
Darwin, C. R., 1909. The Voyage of the Beagle. In Eliot, C. W. (ed.),
New York: The Harvard Classics, P.F. Collier and Son, 524 pp.
Dodge, R. E., Fairbanks, R. G., Benninger, L. K., and Maurrasse, F.,
1983. Pleistocene sea levels from raised coral reefs of Haiti, Science, 219, 1423–1425.
Edwards, R. L., Taylor, F. W., and Wasserburg, G. J., 1989. Dating
earthquakes with high precision thorium-230 ages of very young
corals. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 90, 371–381.
Geist, D., Howard, K. A., Jellinek, A. M., and Rayder, S., 1994. The
volcanic history of Volcan Alcedo, Galapagos Archipelago:
A case study of rhyolitic oceanic volcanism. Bulletin of Volcanology, 56, 243–260.
Gold, S., 1932. The earthquakes of October 1931 in the Solomon
Islands. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
26, 291–295.
Grover, J. C., 1958. The Solomon Islands - geological exploration
and research 1953–1956. British Solomon Islands Geological
Survey, Memoir, 2, 151.
Guppy, H. B., 1887. The Solomon Islands, Their Geology, General
Features, and Suitability for Colonization. London: Swan
Sonnenschein, Lowrey, 152 pp.
Kaizuka, S., 1992. Coastal evolution at a rapidly uplifting volcanic
island: Iwo-Jima, Western Pacific Ocean. Quaternary International, 15/16, 7–16.
Kayanne, H., Ikeda, Y., Echigo, T., Shishikura, M., Kamataki, T.,
Satake, K., Malik, J. N., Basir, S. R., Chakrabortty, G. K., and
Roy, A. K. G., 2007. Coseismic and postseismic creep in the
Andaman Islands associated with the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman
earthquake. Geophysical Research Letters, 34, doi:10.1029/
2006GL028200.
Lawrie, J. H., 1898. Corals and coral islands, with special reference
to the New Hebrides Group. Transactions of the Edinburgh Field
Naturalists Microscopical Society, 3, 320–326.
Lubis, A. M., and Isezaki, N., 2008. Shoreline changes and vertical
displacement of the 2 April 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake
Mw 8.1 revealed by ALOS PALSAR images. Physics and
Chemistry of the Earth, 34, 409–415.
Mann, P., Taylor, F. W., Edwards, R. L., and Ku, T. L., 1995. Actively
evolving microplate formation by oblique collision and sideways
motion along strike-slip faults: an example from the northeastern
Caribbean plate margin. Tectonophysics, 246, 1–69.
Mawson, P., 1905. The geology of the New Hebrides. In Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, Vol. 30, pp.
400–485.
Meltzner, A. J., Sieh, K., Abrams, M., Agnew, D. C., Hudnut, K. W.,
Avouac, J.-P., and Natawidjaja, D. H., 2006. Uplift and subsidence associated with the great Aceh-Andaman earthquake of
2004. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, 1–8,
doi:10.1029/2005JB003891.
Natawidjaja, D. H., Sieh, K., Chlieh, M., Galetzka, J., Suwargadi,
B. W., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Avouac, J.-P. and Ward,
332
EARTHQUAKES AND EMERGENCE OR SUBMERGENCE OF CORAL REEFS
230 Th/
234
U, a method precise to about
1% of the age (e.g., Edwards et al., 1989; Shen et al.,
2008). Combining
230
Th and density band counting can
date multiple relative sea-level changes recorded within
a dead coral head that is hundreds or even thousands of
years old (e.g., Zachaniasen et al., 1999).
Summary/outlook
Methods to document and measure coral reef emergence
and submergence are now well developed and comprise
an important contribution to the understanding of earthquake rupture and the subduction process. Coral micro
atolls record the details of both uplift and subsidence over
recent centuries or even millennia. Space-based GPS and
radar methods have greatly improved the temporal resolution of measurements and can measure horizontal strain as
well as vertical motions. With numerous scientists aware
of the scientific value of coseismically emerged and submerged coral reefs, it is likely that most future large events
will be measured adequately. Smaller ones are not likely to
be recognized and investigated unless they occur in an
area that is easily accessible or are located in an area of
particular scientific interest where GPS survey marks
already exist.
Bibliography
Amelung, F., Jonsson, S., Zebker, H., and Segall, P., 2000. Widespread uplift and “trapdoor” faulting on Galapagos volcanoes
observed with radar interferometry. Nature, 407, 993–996.
Benoit, M., and Dubois, J., 1971. The earthquake swarm in the New
Hebrides archipelago, August, 1965, recent crustal movements.
Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin, 9, 141–148.
Bilham, R., Engdahl, R., Feldl, N., and Satyabala, S. P., 2005, Partial and complete rupture of the Indo-Andaman plate boundary
1847–2004. Seismological Research Letters, 76, 299–311.
Briggs, R., Sieh, K., Meltzner, A., Natawidjaja, D., Galetzka, J.,
Suwargadi, B., Hsu, Y-J., Simons, M., Hananto, N., Suprihanto,
I., Prayudi, D., Avouac, J.-P., Prawriodirdjo, L., Bock, Y., 2006.
Deformation and slip along the Sunda megthrust during the great
March 2005 Nias-Simeulue earthquake. Science, 311, 1897–
1901, DOI: 10.1126/science.1122602.
Briggs, R. W., Sieh, K., Amidon, W. H., Galetzka, J., Prayudi, D.,
Suprihanto, I., Sastra, N., Suwargadi, B., Natawidjaja, D., and
Farr, T. G., 2008. Persistent elastic behavior above
a megathrust rupture patch: Nias island, West Sumatra. Journal
of Geophysical Research, 113, B12406, doi:10.1029/
2008JB005684.
Buddemeier, R. W., and Taylor, F. W., 1998. Chapter 4:
Sclerochronology. in Sowers, J. M., Noller, J. S.and Lettis,
W. R. (eds.), Dating and Earthquakes: Review of Quaternary
Geochronology and Its Application to Paleoseismology.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG/CR 5562:
2–43 - 2–66.
Calmant, S., Cabioch, G., Regnier, M., Pillet, R., and Pelletier, B.,
1999. Surrections cosismiques et subsidence intersismique
enregistrees par des coraux à Mallicolo (Vanuatu, Pacifique
sud-ouest). Comptes Rendus Academy Science, Paris, Sciences
de la Terre et des planètes, 328, 711–716.
Chen, J. K., Taylor, F. W., Edwards, R. L., Cheng, H., and Burr,
G. S., 1995. Recent emerged reef terraces of the Yenkahe resurgent block, Tanna, Vanuatu: Implications for volcanic, landslide,
and tsunami hazards. Journal of Geology, 103, 577–590.
Chlieh, M., Avouac, J.-P., Hjorleifsdottir, V., Song, T. -R. A., Ji, C.,
Sieh, K., Sladen, A., Hebert, H., Prawirodirdjo, L., Bock, Y., and
Galetzka, J., 2007. Coseismic slip and afterslip of the Great M w
9.15 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 2004, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 97, S152–S173, doi: 10.1785/
0120050631.
Colgan, M. W., and Malmquist, D. L., 1987. The Urvina Bay uplift:
A dry trek through a Galápagos coral reef. Oceanus, 30, 61–66.
Couffer, J. C., 1956. The disappearance of Urvina Bay. Natural History, 65, 378–383.
Dana, J. D., 1890. Corals and Coral Islands. 3rd edn., New York:
Dodd, Mead, 429 pp.
Darwin, C. R., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
Being the First Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle,
Under the Command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. During the Years
1832 to 1836. London: Smith Elder, 214 pp., 2 plates.
Darwin, C. R., 1909. The Voyage of the Beagle. In Eliot, C. W. (ed.),
New York: The Harvard Classics, P.F. Collier and Son, 524 pp.
Dodge, R. E., Fairbanks, R. G., Benninger, L. K., and Maurrasse, F.,
1983. Pleistocene sea levels from raised coral reefs of Haiti, Science, 219, 1423–1425.
Edwards, R. L., Taylor, F. W., and Wasserburg, G. J., 1989. Dating
earthquakes with high precision thorium-230 ages of very young
corals. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 90, 371–381.
Geist, D., Howard, K. A., Jellinek, A. M., and Rayder, S., 1994. The
volcanic history of Volcan Alcedo, Galapagos Archipelago:
A case study of rhyolitic oceanic volcanism. Bulletin of Volcanology, 56, 243–260.
Gold, S., 1932. The earthquakes of October 1931 in the Solomon
Islands. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
26, 291–295.
Grover, J. C., 1958. The Solomon Islands - geological exploration
and research 1953–1956. British Solomon Islands Geological
Survey, Memoir, 2, 151.
Guppy, H. B., 1887. The Solomon Islands, Their Geology, General
Features, and Suitability for Colonization. London: Swan
Sonnenschein, Lowrey, 152 pp.
Kaizuka, S., 1992. Coastal evolution at a rapidly uplifting volcanic
island: Iwo-Jima, Western Pacific Ocean. Quaternary International, 15/16, 7–16.
Kayanne, H., Ikeda, Y., Echigo, T., Shishikura, M., Kamataki, T.,
Satake, K., Malik, J. N., Basir, S. R., Chakrabortty, G. K., and
Roy, A. K. G., 2007. Coseismic and postseismic creep in the
Andaman Islands associated with the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman
earthquake. Geophysical Research Letters, 34, doi:10.1029/
2006GL028200.
Lawrie, J. H., 1898. Corals and coral islands, with special reference
to the New Hebrides Group. Transactions of the Edinburgh Field
Naturalists Microscopical Society, 3, 320–326.
Lubis, A. M., and Isezaki, N., 2008. Shoreline changes and vertical
displacement of the 2 April 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake
Mw 8.1 revealed by ALOS PALSAR images. Physics and
Chemistry of the Earth, 34, 409–415.
Mann, P., Taylor, F. W., Edwards, R. L., and Ku, T. L., 1995. Actively
evolving microplate formation by oblique collision and sideways
motion along strike-slip faults: an example from the northeastern
Caribbean plate margin. Tectonophysics, 246, 1–69.
Mawson, P., 1905. The geology of the New Hebrides. In Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, Vol. 30, pp.
400–485.
Meltzner, A. J., Sieh, K., Abrams, M., Agnew, D. C., Hudnut, K. W.,
Avouac, J.-P., and Natawidjaja, D. H., 2006. Uplift and subsidence associated with the great Aceh-Andaman earthquake of
2004. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, 1–8,
doi:10.1029/2005JB003891.
Natawidjaja, D. H., Sieh, K., Chlieh, M., Galetzka, J., Suwargadi,
B. W., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Avouac, J.-P. and Ward,
332
EARTHQUAKES AND EMERGENCE OR SUBMERGENCE OF CORAL REEFS