In 1967, after numerous radiological surveys at Bikini,
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) concluded
that Bikini was safe for re-habitation, and in 1968 President Johnston ordered the rehabilitation of Bikini. However, the Bikini Council visited Bikini and later decided
against returning there due to concerns over the contamination of coconut crabs and other radiological safety
hazards, but the leadership allowed individual families
to choose for themselves. Three extended families and
about 50 other Marshallese workers opted to return to
Bikini Island in 1969. The rest of the 540 People of Bikini
remained at Kili. After 5 years the population at Bikini had
grown to 100. The U.S. continued efforts to cleanup the
atoll, construct housing, replant coconut trees, move off
all military and AEC personnel, and discontinue regular
air service to Bikini by late 1972.
However, several U.S. agencies warned of “higher levels
of radioactivity than originally thought” . . .“Bikini appears
to be hotter or questionable as to safety”. . . and the “groundwater was too contaminated to be consumed as drinking
water.” Later AEC scientists revealed that locally grown
foods, especially coconuts, pandanus, breadfruit, and coconut crabs bio-accumulate hazardous radio-nuclides including Cesium
137 and Strontium
90
. Later medical tests of the
islanders revealed low levels of Plutonium
239 and Plutonium
240
, radio-nuclides with half lives of thousands of
years. Confused by the reports provided by the U.S., the
Bikini People filed suit in federal court demanding the
U.S. to complete a scientific survey of Bikini and the other
northern Marshall Islands. In 1978, the U.S. agreed to
accomplish an aerial radiological survey of the Northern
Marshalls. Unaware of the extent of the radiological danger,
the settlers opted to remain on Bikini Island until the studies
were completed. However, by May 1977, levels of Strontium
90 in the well water exceeded the maximum U.S. limits,
and a month later another study revealed that “all living patterns involving Bikini Island exceeded federal guidelines
for 30 year population doses.” Moreover, U.S. scientists
recorded a major increase in Cesium
137 body burdens in
the majority of the people living on Bikini I. Alarmed by
these findings, the U.S. Department of Interior (DOI)
advised the settlers to limit consumption of one coconut
per day and to begin shipping in food from outside the atoll.
However, in April 1978 medical examination of the
islanders revealed that radiation levels were well above the
maximum permissible level in many of the 139 people on
Bikini, and by May 1978, DOI described the 75% increase
in Cesium
137 as “incredible.” Hence, all islanders at Bikini
were evacuated to Ejit Island on Majuro Atoll in September
1978, where the community remains to this day. Meanwhile, the main population of the Bikini people continues
to live on Kili Island.
Restoration for resettlement
Over the next 3 decades, the U.S. evaluated various options
for the safe return of the Bikini People to their home atoll.
Lawrence Livermore and Brookhaven National Laboratories
assessed the physical options and maintained medical
support for all people exposed to radiation. Distrustful of
U.S. Government Agencies and Laboratories, the Bikini
People petitioned the U.S Congress to fund independent
bodies to evaluate and advise them on the pros and cons
of various options to restore Bikini for the safe return
and habitation at Bikini Atoll. The first of these was the
Bikini Atoll Rehabilitation Committee (BARC) consisting
of several highly regarded scientists and engineers in the
fields of medicine, radiation, physics, engineering, soils,
and agriculture, and the present writer served as the environmental specialist for BARC from 1984 to 1987. BARC
concluded that habilitation of Bikini Island’s groundwater
to potable levels was not possible and suggested a smaller
permanent settlement at Eneu Island where the environment is free of radiological contamination. As for safe
resettlement options at Bikini Island, BARC proposed
four doable options:
Removing all topsoil from Bikini Island and possibly
replacing it with clean soil
Saturating the soil with fertilizer containing potassium,
an element of similar properties to radioactive cesium
and strontium that would be preferentially taken up by
crops
Soak the soil with seawater which has abundant sodium
that would block the uptake of radioactive cesium
and strontium, but would render the soil unusable for
agriculture
Buy land with reparations funds from the U.S. Nuclear
Claims Tribunal and live somewhere else until Bikini’s
radioactive cesium and strontium decay to safe levels:
the two radio-nuclides have half lives of 28–30 years,
meaning the soil would be safe within two to three
centuries
In the 1990s, the Bikini People hired their own advisors
and have recently solicited the advice of the International
Atomic Energy Agency for evaluation and advice. However, the People of Bikini have not accepted or pursued
any permanent alternative to this date. The one exception
was opening up the atoll to small-scale sport and technical
diving over the past decade. The sunken shipwrecks,
bomb craters and the prolific recovery of the coral reefs
from past insults are attractions of major interest to many
visitors.
Summary and conclusions
Under present circumstances, it is uncertain that the Bikini
People will soon return to Bikini Atoll. The 63 years that
have passed since the residents were first removed from
the atoll have instead led to the passing of most of the original residents. Only a few of the present Bikini population
that now totals more than a thousand have spent much
time or lived at Bikini. All are now a part of a vastly different socio-economic age and culture. Should a larger group
of the Bikini People return to the atoll when it is again
“safe,” global climate change may have already washed
away some of the islands and any hope of resorting
BIKINI ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS
133
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) concluded
that Bikini was safe for re-habitation, and in 1968 President Johnston ordered the rehabilitation of Bikini. However, the Bikini Council visited Bikini and later decided
against returning there due to concerns over the contamination of coconut crabs and other radiological safety
hazards, but the leadership allowed individual families
to choose for themselves. Three extended families and
about 50 other Marshallese workers opted to return to
Bikini Island in 1969. The rest of the 540 People of Bikini
remained at Kili. After 5 years the population at Bikini had
grown to 100. The U.S. continued efforts to cleanup the
atoll, construct housing, replant coconut trees, move off
all military and AEC personnel, and discontinue regular
air service to Bikini by late 1972.
However, several U.S. agencies warned of “higher levels
of radioactivity than originally thought” . . .“Bikini appears
to be hotter or questionable as to safety”. . . and the “groundwater was too contaminated to be consumed as drinking
water.” Later AEC scientists revealed that locally grown
foods, especially coconuts, pandanus, breadfruit, and coconut crabs bio-accumulate hazardous radio-nuclides including Cesium
137 and Strontium
90
. Later medical tests of the
islanders revealed low levels of Plutonium
239 and Plutonium
240
, radio-nuclides with half lives of thousands of
years. Confused by the reports provided by the U.S., the
Bikini People filed suit in federal court demanding the
U.S. to complete a scientific survey of Bikini and the other
northern Marshall Islands. In 1978, the U.S. agreed to
accomplish an aerial radiological survey of the Northern
Marshalls. Unaware of the extent of the radiological danger,
the settlers opted to remain on Bikini Island until the studies
were completed. However, by May 1977, levels of Strontium
90 in the well water exceeded the maximum U.S. limits,
and a month later another study revealed that “all living patterns involving Bikini Island exceeded federal guidelines
for 30 year population doses.” Moreover, U.S. scientists
recorded a major increase in Cesium
137 body burdens in
the majority of the people living on Bikini I. Alarmed by
these findings, the U.S. Department of Interior (DOI)
advised the settlers to limit consumption of one coconut
per day and to begin shipping in food from outside the atoll.
However, in April 1978 medical examination of the
islanders revealed that radiation levels were well above the
maximum permissible level in many of the 139 people on
Bikini, and by May 1978, DOI described the 75% increase
in Cesium
137 as “incredible.” Hence, all islanders at Bikini
were evacuated to Ejit Island on Majuro Atoll in September
1978, where the community remains to this day. Meanwhile, the main population of the Bikini people continues
to live on Kili Island.
Restoration for resettlement
Over the next 3 decades, the U.S. evaluated various options
for the safe return of the Bikini People to their home atoll.
Lawrence Livermore and Brookhaven National Laboratories
assessed the physical options and maintained medical
support for all people exposed to radiation. Distrustful of
U.S. Government Agencies and Laboratories, the Bikini
People petitioned the U.S Congress to fund independent
bodies to evaluate and advise them on the pros and cons
of various options to restore Bikini for the safe return
and habitation at Bikini Atoll. The first of these was the
Bikini Atoll Rehabilitation Committee (BARC) consisting
of several highly regarded scientists and engineers in the
fields of medicine, radiation, physics, engineering, soils,
and agriculture, and the present writer served as the environmental specialist for BARC from 1984 to 1987. BARC
concluded that habilitation of Bikini Island’s groundwater
to potable levels was not possible and suggested a smaller
permanent settlement at Eneu Island where the environment is free of radiological contamination. As for safe
resettlement options at Bikini Island, BARC proposed
four doable options:
Removing all topsoil from Bikini Island and possibly
replacing it with clean soil
Saturating the soil with fertilizer containing potassium,
an element of similar properties to radioactive cesium
and strontium that would be preferentially taken up by
crops
Soak the soil with seawater which has abundant sodium
that would block the uptake of radioactive cesium
and strontium, but would render the soil unusable for
agriculture
Buy land with reparations funds from the U.S. Nuclear
Claims Tribunal and live somewhere else until Bikini’s
radioactive cesium and strontium decay to safe levels:
the two radio-nuclides have half lives of 28–30 years,
meaning the soil would be safe within two to three
centuries
In the 1990s, the Bikini People hired their own advisors
and have recently solicited the advice of the International
Atomic Energy Agency for evaluation and advice. However, the People of Bikini have not accepted or pursued
any permanent alternative to this date. The one exception
was opening up the atoll to small-scale sport and technical
diving over the past decade. The sunken shipwrecks,
bomb craters and the prolific recovery of the coral reefs
from past insults are attractions of major interest to many
visitors.
Summary and conclusions
Under present circumstances, it is uncertain that the Bikini
People will soon return to Bikini Atoll. The 63 years that
have passed since the residents were first removed from
the atoll have instead led to the passing of most of the original residents. Only a few of the present Bikini population
that now totals more than a thousand have spent much
time or lived at Bikini. All are now a part of a vastly different socio-economic age and culture. Should a larger group
of the Bikini People return to the atoll when it is again
“safe,” global climate change may have already washed
away some of the islands and any hope of resorting
BIKINI ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS
133