financing mechanisms. Restoring infrastructure also
offers opportunities for multifunctional use of the
infrastructure.
Coastal erosion management
Many estuaries are experiencing coastal erosion problems
due to sediment shortages. Solutions should preferably
include a restoration of the sediment balance. If this is
not feasible, sand nourishments are preferred over hard
engineering structures. Also, other “building with nature”
options should be looked into, e.g., mangrove restoration.
This is primarily a task for coastal management agencies,
which should work closely together with local stakeholders and the private sector.
Biodiversity protection and restoration of ecosystems
Estuarine ecosystems are under significant pressure
worldwide due to human activities. Effective action must
be undertaken to protect against habitat destruction, external disturbance, and pollutant inputs. This requires adhering to national and international controls such as the
Habitats Directive, Ramsar Convention, and Convention
on Biological Diversity. Biodiversity protection should
be implemented at the local level through cooperation
and involvement of all stakeholders. Efforts should be
made to restore estuarine ecosystems. An integral
approach and early involvement of stakeholders contribute to the success of restoration efforts. The integrity of
(altered) estuarine ecosystems may be enhanced through
reconnection with rivers and seas.
Summary
Ecosystem resources and services are vital for the economic growth and sustainability of coastal communities.
However, estuaries are facing greater pressures worldwide
due to rapid population growth, economic development,
and climate change. This places greater importance on
effective management of estuaries. To promote sustainable development of estuaries, a clear vision and direction
must be developed on how to best respond to the various
drivers of change as well as to address the needs and trends
of society. Thus, it is necessary to reverse unsustainable
trends by shifting to more sustainable-use patterns,
thereby enhancing vital environmental functions,
economic growth, and social progress.
Bibliography
Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. W., Stier, A. C.,
and Silliman, B. R., 2011. The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs, 81(2), 169–193.
Castelle, A. J., Conolly, C., Emers, M., Metz, E. D., Meyer, S.,
Witter, M., Mauermann, S., Erickson, T., Cooke, S. S., 1992.
Wetland Buffers: Use and Effectiveness. Adolfson Associates,
Inc., Shorelands and Coastal Zone Management Program,
Washington Department of Ecology, Olympia, Pub. No. 92–10.
CEC (Commission of the European Communities), 2003. Towards
a Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural
Resources. COM(2003) 572 final, Brussels, p. 29.
CEC (Commission of the European Communities), 2005. Thematic
Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. COM
(2005) 670 final. Brussels, p. 22.
Costanza, R., Arge, R., Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon,
B., Limburg, K., Shahid, N., O´Neill, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin,
R., Sutton, P., and van den Belt, M., 1997. The value of the
world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387,
253–260.
EC (European Communities), 2007. Analysis of National Sets of
Indicators Used in the National Reform Programmes and Sustainable Development Strategies. Eurostat: Methodologies and
Working Papers. Luxembourg. ISSN 1977-0375.
EC (European Commission), 2009. Sustainable Consumption and
Production. Brussels, p. 4. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
pubs/pdf/factsheets/sustainable_consumption.pdf
Höft, R., 2008. Convention on Biological Diversity. Chichester:
Wiley.
Kennish, M. J., 2002. Environmental threats and environmental
future of estuaries. Environmental Conservation, 29, 78–107.
Kennish, M. J., 2012. Restoration of estuaries. Nature Education
Knowledge, 3(11), 5.
Kildow, J., 2009. The influence of coastal preservation and restoration on coastal real estate values. In Pendleton, L. H. (ed.), The
Economic and Market Value of Coasts and Estuaries: What’s
At Stake? Arlington: Restore America’s Estuaries, pp. 116–139.
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment), 2005. Ecosystems and
Human Well-being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Most, H., Marchand, M., Bucx, T., Nauta, T., and van Staveren, M.,
2009. Towards Sustainable Development of Deltas, Estuaries
and Coastal Zones. Trends and Responses: Executive Summary.
Rotterdam: JB&A van Driel.
Nixon, S. W., Oviatt, C. A., Frithsen, J., and Sullivan, B., 1986.
Nutrients and the productivity of estuarine and coastal marine
ecosystems. Journal of the Limnological Society of Southern
Africa, 12, 43–71.
Rice, C. A., Hood, W., Tear, L., Simenstad, G., Williams, G., Johnson, L., Feist, B., and Roni, P., 2005. Monitoring rehabilitation in
temperate North American estuaries. In Roni, P. (ed.), Monitoring Stream and Watershed Restoration. Bethesda: American
Fisheries Society, pp. 167–208.
Ross, D. A., 1995. Introduction to Oceanography. New York:
Harper Collins.
SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity),
2000. Sustaining life on Earth - How the Convention on Biological Diversity Promotes Nature and Human Well-being.
Montreal.
SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity),
2004. Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the
Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (CBD Guidelines), Montreal:
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, p. 21.
Sekovski, I., Newton, A., and Dennisond, C. D., 2012. Megacities
in the coastal zone: using a driver-pressure-state-impactresponse framework to address complex environmental problems. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 96, 48–59.
SERI (Sustainable Europe Research Institute), GLOBAL 2000,
Friends of the Earth Europe, 2009. Overconsumption? Our Use
of the World’s Natural Resources. Heidenreichstein.
Simenstad, C. and Bottom, D., 2002. Guiding Ecological Principles
for Restoration of Salmon Habitat in the Columbia River
Estuary. Washington, DC.
Stevens, H., 2010. Estuarine Shoreline Response to Sea Level Rise.
Technical Report Prepared for Lake Macquarie City Council.
Thom, R., and Wellman, K., 1996. Planning Aquatic Ecosystem
Restoration Monitoring Programs. Alexandria: U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers.
UN (United Nations), 1987. Our Common Future: Report of the
World Commission on Environment and Development. Oslo.
SUSTAINABLE USE
659
offers opportunities for multifunctional use of the
infrastructure.
Coastal erosion management
Many estuaries are experiencing coastal erosion problems
due to sediment shortages. Solutions should preferably
include a restoration of the sediment balance. If this is
not feasible, sand nourishments are preferred over hard
engineering structures. Also, other “building with nature”
options should be looked into, e.g., mangrove restoration.
This is primarily a task for coastal management agencies,
which should work closely together with local stakeholders and the private sector.
Biodiversity protection and restoration of ecosystems
Estuarine ecosystems are under significant pressure
worldwide due to human activities. Effective action must
be undertaken to protect against habitat destruction, external disturbance, and pollutant inputs. This requires adhering to national and international controls such as the
Habitats Directive, Ramsar Convention, and Convention
on Biological Diversity. Biodiversity protection should
be implemented at the local level through cooperation
and involvement of all stakeholders. Efforts should be
made to restore estuarine ecosystems. An integral
approach and early involvement of stakeholders contribute to the success of restoration efforts. The integrity of
(altered) estuarine ecosystems may be enhanced through
reconnection with rivers and seas.
Summary
Ecosystem resources and services are vital for the economic growth and sustainability of coastal communities.
However, estuaries are facing greater pressures worldwide
due to rapid population growth, economic development,
and climate change. This places greater importance on
effective management of estuaries. To promote sustainable development of estuaries, a clear vision and direction
must be developed on how to best respond to the various
drivers of change as well as to address the needs and trends
of society. Thus, it is necessary to reverse unsustainable
trends by shifting to more sustainable-use patterns,
thereby enhancing vital environmental functions,
economic growth, and social progress.
Bibliography
Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. W., Stier, A. C.,
and Silliman, B. R., 2011. The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs, 81(2), 169–193.
Castelle, A. J., Conolly, C., Emers, M., Metz, E. D., Meyer, S.,
Witter, M., Mauermann, S., Erickson, T., Cooke, S. S., 1992.
Wetland Buffers: Use and Effectiveness. Adolfson Associates,
Inc., Shorelands and Coastal Zone Management Program,
Washington Department of Ecology, Olympia, Pub. No. 92–10.
CEC (Commission of the European Communities), 2003. Towards
a Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural
Resources. COM(2003) 572 final, Brussels, p. 29.
CEC (Commission of the European Communities), 2005. Thematic
Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. COM
(2005) 670 final. Brussels, p. 22.
Costanza, R., Arge, R., Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon,
B., Limburg, K., Shahid, N., O´Neill, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin,
R., Sutton, P., and van den Belt, M., 1997. The value of the
world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387,
253–260.
EC (European Communities), 2007. Analysis of National Sets of
Indicators Used in the National Reform Programmes and Sustainable Development Strategies. Eurostat: Methodologies and
Working Papers. Luxembourg. ISSN 1977-0375.
EC (European Commission), 2009. Sustainable Consumption and
Production. Brussels, p. 4. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
pubs/pdf/factsheets/sustainable_consumption.pdf
Höft, R., 2008. Convention on Biological Diversity. Chichester:
Wiley.
Kennish, M. J., 2002. Environmental threats and environmental
future of estuaries. Environmental Conservation, 29, 78–107.
Kennish, M. J., 2012. Restoration of estuaries. Nature Education
Knowledge, 3(11), 5.
Kildow, J., 2009. The influence of coastal preservation and restoration on coastal real estate values. In Pendleton, L. H. (ed.), The
Economic and Market Value of Coasts and Estuaries: What’s
At Stake? Arlington: Restore America’s Estuaries, pp. 116–139.
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment), 2005. Ecosystems and
Human Well-being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Most, H., Marchand, M., Bucx, T., Nauta, T., and van Staveren, M.,
2009. Towards Sustainable Development of Deltas, Estuaries
and Coastal Zones. Trends and Responses: Executive Summary.
Rotterdam: JB&A van Driel.
Nixon, S. W., Oviatt, C. A., Frithsen, J., and Sullivan, B., 1986.
Nutrients and the productivity of estuarine and coastal marine
ecosystems. Journal of the Limnological Society of Southern
Africa, 12, 43–71.
Rice, C. A., Hood, W., Tear, L., Simenstad, G., Williams, G., Johnson, L., Feist, B., and Roni, P., 2005. Monitoring rehabilitation in
temperate North American estuaries. In Roni, P. (ed.), Monitoring Stream and Watershed Restoration. Bethesda: American
Fisheries Society, pp. 167–208.
Ross, D. A., 1995. Introduction to Oceanography. New York:
Harper Collins.
SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity),
2000. Sustaining life on Earth - How the Convention on Biological Diversity Promotes Nature and Human Well-being.
Montreal.
SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity),
2004. Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the
Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (CBD Guidelines), Montreal:
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, p. 21.
Sekovski, I., Newton, A., and Dennisond, C. D., 2012. Megacities
in the coastal zone: using a driver-pressure-state-impactresponse framework to address complex environmental problems. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 96, 48–59.
SERI (Sustainable Europe Research Institute), GLOBAL 2000,
Friends of the Earth Europe, 2009. Overconsumption? Our Use
of the World’s Natural Resources. Heidenreichstein.
Simenstad, C. and Bottom, D., 2002. Guiding Ecological Principles
for Restoration of Salmon Habitat in the Columbia River
Estuary. Washington, DC.
Stevens, H., 2010. Estuarine Shoreline Response to Sea Level Rise.
Technical Report Prepared for Lake Macquarie City Council.
Thom, R., and Wellman, K., 1996. Planning Aquatic Ecosystem
Restoration Monitoring Programs. Alexandria: U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers.
UN (United Nations), 1987. Our Common Future: Report of the
World Commission on Environment and Development. Oslo.
SUSTAINABLE USE
659