UN (United Nations), 1992. Convention on Biological Diversity.
Vienna.
UN (United Nations), 2007. Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies, 3rd edn. New York:
United Nations.
UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe),
Eurostat, OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development), 2013. Framework and Suggested Indicators
to Measure Sustainable Development. http://www.unece.org/
fileadmin/DAM/stats/documents/ece/ces/2013/SD_framework
_and_indicators_final.pdf
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization), 2006. A Handbook for Measuring the Progress
and Outcomes of Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management.
IOC Manuals and Guides, Vol. 46; ICAM Dossier 2, Paris.
Vasconcelos, R. P., Reis-Santos, P., Costa, M. J., and Cabral, H. N.,
2011. Connectivity between estuaries and marine environment:
integrating metrics to assess estuarine nursery function. Ecological Indicators, 11, 1123–1133.
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development),
1987. Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wilson, M., and Farber, S., 2009. Accounting for ecosystem goods
and services in coastal estuaries. In Pendleton, L. H. (ed.), The
Economic and Market Value of Coasts and Estuaries: What’s
At Stake? Arlington: Restore America’s Estuaries, pp. 14–36.
Cross-references
Adaptive Management
Coastal Wetlands
Estuarine Habitat Restoration
Estuary Conservation
SYMBIOSIS
Antje Rusch
Department of Microbiology and Center for Ecology,
Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale,
IL, USA
Definition
Symbiosis is defined as a lasting, intimate association
between members of different species of organisms
(de Bary, 1879). There are mutualistic, parasitic, and
antagonistic symbioses. Etymology: From Greek sύn –
together and Greek bίoB – life.
Description
Interspecific cohabitation occurs in a wide range of habitats and across all known forms of life. The character of
species interactions may change over time or with conditions (Aanen and Hoekstra, 2007; Roossick, 2011).
Beyond beneficial or detrimental effects among symbiotic
partners, symbioses can alter ecosystems and affect biogeochemical cycles (Dziallas et al., 2012).
The close physical association of symbionts can
facilitate horizontal gene transfer, which allows for
genetic responses (adaptation) to environmental change.
In addition, the inactivation or termination of existing
symbioses in favor of activating or establishing different
ones may add flexibility to the ecophysiological properties
of the symbiotic community (Baker, 2003; Dziallas
et al., 2012).
Bibliography
Aanen, D. K., and Hoekstra, R. F., 2007. The evolution of obligate
mutualism: if you can’t beat ‘em, join ’em. Trends in Ecology
and Evolution, 22, 506–509.
Baker, A. C., 2003. Flexibility and specificity in coral-algal symbiosis: diversity, ecology, and biogeography of Symbiodinium.
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 34,
661–689.
de Bary, H. A., 1879. Die Erscheinung der Symbiose. Strassburg:
Verlag Karl J. Trübner.
Dziallas, C., Allgaier, M., Monaghan, M. T., and Grossart, H.-P.,
2012. Act together – implications of symbioses in aquatic ciliates. Frontiers in Microbiology, 3, Article 288.
Roossick, M. J., 2011. The good viruses: viral mutualistic symbioses. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 9, 99–108.
Cross-references
Mutualism
660
SYMBIOSIS
Vienna.
UN (United Nations), 2007. Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies, 3rd edn. New York:
United Nations.
UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe),
Eurostat, OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development), 2013. Framework and Suggested Indicators
to Measure Sustainable Development. http://www.unece.org/
fileadmin/DAM/stats/documents/ece/ces/2013/SD_framework
_and_indicators_final.pdf
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization), 2006. A Handbook for Measuring the Progress
and Outcomes of Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management.
IOC Manuals and Guides, Vol. 46; ICAM Dossier 2, Paris.
Vasconcelos, R. P., Reis-Santos, P., Costa, M. J., and Cabral, H. N.,
2011. Connectivity between estuaries and marine environment:
integrating metrics to assess estuarine nursery function. Ecological Indicators, 11, 1123–1133.
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development),
1987. Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wilson, M., and Farber, S., 2009. Accounting for ecosystem goods
and services in coastal estuaries. In Pendleton, L. H. (ed.), The
Economic and Market Value of Coasts and Estuaries: What’s
At Stake? Arlington: Restore America’s Estuaries, pp. 14–36.
Cross-references
Adaptive Management
Coastal Wetlands
Estuarine Habitat Restoration
Estuary Conservation
SYMBIOSIS
Antje Rusch
Department of Microbiology and Center for Ecology,
Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale,
IL, USA
Definition
Symbiosis is defined as a lasting, intimate association
between members of different species of organisms
(de Bary, 1879). There are mutualistic, parasitic, and
antagonistic symbioses. Etymology: From Greek sύn –
together and Greek bίoB – life.
Description
Interspecific cohabitation occurs in a wide range of habitats and across all known forms of life. The character of
species interactions may change over time or with conditions (Aanen and Hoekstra, 2007; Roossick, 2011).
Beyond beneficial or detrimental effects among symbiotic
partners, symbioses can alter ecosystems and affect biogeochemical cycles (Dziallas et al., 2012).
The close physical association of symbionts can
facilitate horizontal gene transfer, which allows for
genetic responses (adaptation) to environmental change.
In addition, the inactivation or termination of existing
symbioses in favor of activating or establishing different
ones may add flexibility to the ecophysiological properties
of the symbiotic community (Baker, 2003; Dziallas
et al., 2012).
Bibliography
Aanen, D. K., and Hoekstra, R. F., 2007. The evolution of obligate
mutualism: if you can’t beat ‘em, join ’em. Trends in Ecology
and Evolution, 22, 506–509.
Baker, A. C., 2003. Flexibility and specificity in coral-algal symbiosis: diversity, ecology, and biogeography of Symbiodinium.
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 34,
661–689.
de Bary, H. A., 1879. Die Erscheinung der Symbiose. Strassburg:
Verlag Karl J. Trübner.
Dziallas, C., Allgaier, M., Monaghan, M. T., and Grossart, H.-P.,
2012. Act together – implications of symbioses in aquatic ciliates. Frontiers in Microbiology, 3, Article 288.
Roossick, M. J., 2011. The good viruses: viral mutualistic symbioses. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 9, 99–108.
Cross-references
Mutualism
660
SYMBIOSIS