global change will also decrease prey abundance and
availability (Lindstrom and Agrell, 2012).
Because most species of shorebirds are migratory and
often span large geographic regions of the world, their
conservation requires international efforts, such as the
Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network
(WHSR, 2013). There are two in-depth conservation plans
for shorebirds of North America: a US plan (Brown et al.,
2001) and a Canadian plan (Donaldson et al., 2000), and
both contain a wealth of information on both threats
and solutions. These involve collaborations among states,
federal governments, international agreements, and
treaties.
Summary
Shorebirds, small- to medium-sized birds that frequently
feed along shorelines, include snipes, godwits, stints,
sandpipers, phalaropes, jacanas, thick-knees, oystercatchers, avocets, plovers, and lapwings. Most shorebirds
breed solitarily, although a few nest in small colonies.
They rely on their cryptic coloration and hiding their nests
to avoid mammalian predation on their nests and eggs.
They nest on the ground, in the open sand, under vegetation, on rocky beaches, or in wet swales from the Arctic
to Antarctica. During migration and while overwintering,
shorebirds form flocks of hundreds to thousands and
forage in large groups to exploit coastal prey. Some
migrate long distances from Arctic breeding grounds to
the tip of South America. Threats to shorebirds include
human disturbance while nesting or foraging on coastal
beaches and mudflats; predators, harvesting, habitat loss
due to coastal and Arctic development, and sea-level rise.
Bibliography
Bart, J., and Johnston, V. (eds.), 2012. Arctic Shorebirds in North
America: A Decade of Monitoring. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Borgmann, K. L., 2011. A Review of Human Disturbance Impacts
on Waterbirds. California: Audubon. www.sfbay.org/newsgeneral.php
Brown, S., Hickey, C., Harrington, B., and Gill, R. (eds.), 2001.
United States Shorebird Conservation Plan, 2nd edn. Manomet:
Manomet Center for Conservation Science.
Burger, J., 1984. Shorebirds as marine animals. In Burger, J., and
Olla, B. I. (eds.), Behavior of Marine Animals, Vol. 5: Shorebirds: Breeding Behavior and Populations. New York: Plenum
Press, pp. 17–81.
Burger, J., and Niles, L., 2013. Shorebirds and stakeholders: effects
of beach closure and human activities on shorebirds at
a New Jersey coastal beach. Urban Ecosystems, 16, 657–673.
Burger, J., and Olla, B. (eds.), 1984. Behavior of Marine Animals,
Vol. 5: Shorebirds: Breeding Behavior and Populations. New
York: Plenum Press.
Clemens, R. S., Kendall, B. E., Guillet, J., and Fuller, R. A., 2012.
Review of Australian shorebird survey data, with notes on their
suitability for comprehensive population trend analysis. Stilt,
62, 3–17.
Colwell, M. A., 2010. Shorebird Ecology, Conservation, and
Management. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Convertino, M., Bockelie, A., Kiker, G. A., Munoz-Carpena, R.,
and Linkov, I., 2012. Shorebird patches as fingerprints of fractal
coastline fluctuations due to climate change. Ecological
Processes, 1, 1–17.
Donaldson, G., Hyslop, C., Morrison, R. I. G., Dickson, H. L., and
Davidson, I., 2000. Canadian Shorebird Conservation Plan.
Ottawa: Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment, Canada.
Durell, S. E. A. L. D., 2000. Individual feeding specialisation in
shorebirds: population consequences and conservation implications. Biological Reviews, 75, 503–518.
Evans-Ogden, L. J., Bittman, S., and Lank, D. B., 2007. A review of
agricultural land Use by shorebirds with reference to habitat
conservation in the Fraser River Delta, British Columbia.
Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 88, 71–83.
Galbraith, H., Jones, R., Park, R., Clough, J., Herod-Julius, S.,
Harrington, B., and Page, G., 2005. Global climate change and
sea level rise: potential losses of intertidal habitat for shorebirds.
Colonial Waterbirds, 25, 173–183.
Gochfeld, M., 1984. Antipredator behavior: aggression and distraction displays of shorebirds. In Burger, J., and Olla, B. I. (eds.),
Behavior of Marine Animals, Vol. 5: Shorebirds: Breeding
Behavior and Populations. New York: Plenum Press,
pp. 243–288.
Goss-Custard, J. D., Stillman, R. A., West, A. D., McGrorty, S.,
Durell, S. E. A. E. V. D., and Caldow, R. W. G., 2000. The role
of behavioural models in predicting the ecological impact of
harvesting. In Goslng, L. M., and Sutherland, W. J. (eds.),
Behaviour and Conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 65–82.
Goss-Custard, J. D., Triplet, P., Sueur, F., and West, A. D., 2006.
Critical thresholds of disturbance by people and raptors in foraging wading birds. Biological Conservation, 127, 88–97.
WHSR (Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network), 2013.
Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network List of Sites.
http://www.whsrn.org/site-profile.
Kendall, S., Payer, D., Brown, S., and Churchwell, R., 2011.
Impacts of climate change and development on shorebirds of
the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. In Watson, P. T., Cade,
T. J., Fuller, M., Hunt, G. and Potapov, E., (eds.), Gyrfalcons
and Ptarmigan in a Changing World. Boise: The Peregrine
Fund, pp. 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.4080.gpcw.2011.0109.
Lank, D. B., Butler, R. W., Ireland, J., and Ydenberg, R. C., 2003.
Effects of predation danger on migration strategies of sandpipers. Oikos, 103, 303–319.
Lindstrom, A., and Agrell, J., 2012. Global change and possible
effects on the migration and reproduction of Arctic-breeding
waders. Ecological Bulletin, 47, 145–159.
Minton, C., Gosbell, K., Johns, P., Christie, M., Klaassen, M.,
Hassell, C., Boyle, A., Jessop, R., and Fox, J., 2011. Geolocator
studies on Ruddy Turnstones Arenaria interpres and Greater
Sandplover Charadrius leschenaultii in the East AsianAustralasia flyway reveal widely different migration strategies.
Wader Study Group Bulletin, 118, 87–96.
Morrison, R. I. G., 1984. Migration systems of some New World
shorebirds. In Burger, J., and Olla, B. I. (eds.), Behavior of
Marine Animals, Vol. 5: Shorebirds: Breeding Behavior and
Populations. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 125–201.
Morrison, R. I. G., Aubry, Y., Butler, R. W., Beyersbergen, G. W.,
Donaldson, G. M., Gratto-Trevor, C. L., Hicklin, P. W., Johnston, V. H., and Ross, R. K., 2001. Declines in North American
shorebird populations. Wader Study Group Bulletin, 94, 34–38.
Morrison, R.I.G, McCaffery, B.J., Gill, R.E., Skagen, S.K., Jones,
S.L., Page, G.W., Gratto-Trevor, C.L., and Andres, B.A., 2006.
Population estimates of North American shorebirds, 2006.
Wader Study Group Bull, 111, 66–84.
Morrison, R. I. G., Davidson, N. C., and Wilson, J. R., 2007.
Survival of the fattest: body stores on migration and survival of
Red Knots, Calidris canutus islandica. Journal of Avian
Biology, 38, 479–487.
588
SHOREBIRDS
availability (Lindstrom and Agrell, 2012).
Because most species of shorebirds are migratory and
often span large geographic regions of the world, their
conservation requires international efforts, such as the
Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network
(WHSR, 2013). There are two in-depth conservation plans
for shorebirds of North America: a US plan (Brown et al.,
2001) and a Canadian plan (Donaldson et al., 2000), and
both contain a wealth of information on both threats
and solutions. These involve collaborations among states,
federal governments, international agreements, and
treaties.
Summary
Shorebirds, small- to medium-sized birds that frequently
feed along shorelines, include snipes, godwits, stints,
sandpipers, phalaropes, jacanas, thick-knees, oystercatchers, avocets, plovers, and lapwings. Most shorebirds
breed solitarily, although a few nest in small colonies.
They rely on their cryptic coloration and hiding their nests
to avoid mammalian predation on their nests and eggs.
They nest on the ground, in the open sand, under vegetation, on rocky beaches, or in wet swales from the Arctic
to Antarctica. During migration and while overwintering,
shorebirds form flocks of hundreds to thousands and
forage in large groups to exploit coastal prey. Some
migrate long distances from Arctic breeding grounds to
the tip of South America. Threats to shorebirds include
human disturbance while nesting or foraging on coastal
beaches and mudflats; predators, harvesting, habitat loss
due to coastal and Arctic development, and sea-level rise.
Bibliography
Bart, J., and Johnston, V. (eds.), 2012. Arctic Shorebirds in North
America: A Decade of Monitoring. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Borgmann, K. L., 2011. A Review of Human Disturbance Impacts
on Waterbirds. California: Audubon. www.sfbay.org/newsgeneral.php
Brown, S., Hickey, C., Harrington, B., and Gill, R. (eds.), 2001.
United States Shorebird Conservation Plan, 2nd edn. Manomet:
Manomet Center for Conservation Science.
Burger, J., 1984. Shorebirds as marine animals. In Burger, J., and
Olla, B. I. (eds.), Behavior of Marine Animals, Vol. 5: Shorebirds: Breeding Behavior and Populations. New York: Plenum
Press, pp. 17–81.
Burger, J., and Niles, L., 2013. Shorebirds and stakeholders: effects
of beach closure and human activities on shorebirds at
a New Jersey coastal beach. Urban Ecosystems, 16, 657–673.
Burger, J., and Olla, B. (eds.), 1984. Behavior of Marine Animals,
Vol. 5: Shorebirds: Breeding Behavior and Populations. New
York: Plenum Press.
Clemens, R. S., Kendall, B. E., Guillet, J., and Fuller, R. A., 2012.
Review of Australian shorebird survey data, with notes on their
suitability for comprehensive population trend analysis. Stilt,
62, 3–17.
Colwell, M. A., 2010. Shorebird Ecology, Conservation, and
Management. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Convertino, M., Bockelie, A., Kiker, G. A., Munoz-Carpena, R.,
and Linkov, I., 2012. Shorebird patches as fingerprints of fractal
coastline fluctuations due to climate change. Ecological
Processes, 1, 1–17.
Donaldson, G., Hyslop, C., Morrison, R. I. G., Dickson, H. L., and
Davidson, I., 2000. Canadian Shorebird Conservation Plan.
Ottawa: Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment, Canada.
Durell, S. E. A. L. D., 2000. Individual feeding specialisation in
shorebirds: population consequences and conservation implications. Biological Reviews, 75, 503–518.
Evans-Ogden, L. J., Bittman, S., and Lank, D. B., 2007. A review of
agricultural land Use by shorebirds with reference to habitat
conservation in the Fraser River Delta, British Columbia.
Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 88, 71–83.
Galbraith, H., Jones, R., Park, R., Clough, J., Herod-Julius, S.,
Harrington, B., and Page, G., 2005. Global climate change and
sea level rise: potential losses of intertidal habitat for shorebirds.
Colonial Waterbirds, 25, 173–183.
Gochfeld, M., 1984. Antipredator behavior: aggression and distraction displays of shorebirds. In Burger, J., and Olla, B. I. (eds.),
Behavior of Marine Animals, Vol. 5: Shorebirds: Breeding
Behavior and Populations. New York: Plenum Press,
pp. 243–288.
Goss-Custard, J. D., Stillman, R. A., West, A. D., McGrorty, S.,
Durell, S. E. A. E. V. D., and Caldow, R. W. G., 2000. The role
of behavioural models in predicting the ecological impact of
harvesting. In Goslng, L. M., and Sutherland, W. J. (eds.),
Behaviour and Conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 65–82.
Goss-Custard, J. D., Triplet, P., Sueur, F., and West, A. D., 2006.
Critical thresholds of disturbance by people and raptors in foraging wading birds. Biological Conservation, 127, 88–97.
WHSR (Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network), 2013.
Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network List of Sites.
http://www.whsrn.org/site-profile.
Kendall, S., Payer, D., Brown, S., and Churchwell, R., 2011.
Impacts of climate change and development on shorebirds of
the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. In Watson, P. T., Cade,
T. J., Fuller, M., Hunt, G. and Potapov, E., (eds.), Gyrfalcons
and Ptarmigan in a Changing World. Boise: The Peregrine
Fund, pp. 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.4080.gpcw.2011.0109.
Lank, D. B., Butler, R. W., Ireland, J., and Ydenberg, R. C., 2003.
Effects of predation danger on migration strategies of sandpipers. Oikos, 103, 303–319.
Lindstrom, A., and Agrell, J., 2012. Global change and possible
effects on the migration and reproduction of Arctic-breeding
waders. Ecological Bulletin, 47, 145–159.
Minton, C., Gosbell, K., Johns, P., Christie, M., Klaassen, M.,
Hassell, C., Boyle, A., Jessop, R., and Fox, J., 2011. Geolocator
studies on Ruddy Turnstones Arenaria interpres and Greater
Sandplover Charadrius leschenaultii in the East AsianAustralasia flyway reveal widely different migration strategies.
Wader Study Group Bulletin, 118, 87–96.
Morrison, R. I. G., 1984. Migration systems of some New World
shorebirds. In Burger, J., and Olla, B. I. (eds.), Behavior of
Marine Animals, Vol. 5: Shorebirds: Breeding Behavior and
Populations. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 125–201.
Morrison, R. I. G., Aubry, Y., Butler, R. W., Beyersbergen, G. W.,
Donaldson, G. M., Gratto-Trevor, C. L., Hicklin, P. W., Johnston, V. H., and Ross, R. K., 2001. Declines in North American
shorebird populations. Wader Study Group Bulletin, 94, 34–38.
Morrison, R.I.G, McCaffery, B.J., Gill, R.E., Skagen, S.K., Jones,
S.L., Page, G.W., Gratto-Trevor, C.L., and Andres, B.A., 2006.
Population estimates of North American shorebirds, 2006.
Wader Study Group Bull, 111, 66–84.
Morrison, R. I. G., Davidson, N. C., and Wilson, J. R., 2007.
Survival of the fattest: body stores on migration and survival of
Red Knots, Calidris canutus islandica. Journal of Avian
Biology, 38, 479–487.
588
SHOREBIRDS