marsh plants on the East and West Coasts, where Phragmites and Spartina removal, respectively, is common.
It is rare to be able to totally eradicate a species as was
done with Caulerpa in California.
Despite these efforts, it is likely that continued environmental changes in the twenty-first century will alter both
the availability of species for transport and the degree of
susceptibility to invasions. In addition to human-caused
modifications in the local environment, climate change
will interact with the arrival of nonnative species in new
areas to modify diversity and to alter the functioning of
ecosystems around the globe.
Summary and conclusions
Many species of nonnative organisms have established
themselves in new estuaries as a result of human introduction, and the rate of introduction has been accelerating,
probably because of increased shipping with larger ships
and faster voyages. Invasions have caused extensive ecological changes in salt marshes and other coastal habitats.
It is more cost-effective to prevent invasive species from
establishing themselves than it is to try to eradicate them
once they have become established. Invasive species
threaten biodiversity, fishing, tourism, and human health.
While some progress is being made, effective solutions
appear to be a long way off (Bax et al., 2003).
Bibliography
Able, K. W., and Hagen, S. M., 2000. Effects of common reed
(Phragmites australis) invasion on marsh surface macrofauna:
response of fishes and decapod crustaceans. Estuaries, 23,
633–646.
Allin, C. C., and Husband, T. P., 2003. Mute Swan (Cygnus olor)
impact on submerged aquatic vegetation and macroinvertebrates
in a Rhode Island coastal pond. Northeastern Naturalist, 10,
305–318.
An, S. Q., et al., 2007. Spartina invasion in China: implications for
invasive species management and future research. Weed
Research, 47, 183–191.
Anderson, L., 2005. California’s reaction to Caulerpa taxifolia:
a model for invasive species rapid response. Biological Invasions, 7, 1003–1016.
Bax, N., Williamson, A., Aguero, M., Gonzalez, E., and Geeves, W.,
2003. Marine invasive alien species: a threat to global biodiversity. Marine Policy, 27, 313–323.
Benoit, L. K., and Askins, R. A., 1999. Impact of the spread of
Phragmites on the distribution of birds in Connecticut tidal
marshes. Wetlands, 19, 194–208.
Bertness, M. D., 1984. Habitat and community modification by an
introduced herbivorous snail. Ecology, 65, 370–381.
Blakeslee, A. M., Byers, J. E., and Lesser, M. P., 2008. Solving
cryptogenic histories using host and parasite molecular genetics:
the resolution of Littorina littorea’s North American origin.
Molecular Ecology, 17, 3684–3696.
Carlton, J. T., and Cohen, A. N., 1998. Periwinkle’s progress: the
Atlantic snail Littorina saxatilis (Mollusca: Gastropoda) establishes a colony on a Pacific shore. Veliger, 41, 333–338.
Carlton, J. T., and Geller, J. B., 1993. Ecological roulette: the global
transport of nonindigenous marine organisms. Science, 261,
78–82.
Cohen, A. N., and Carlton, J. T., 1998. Accelerating invasion in
a highly invaded estuary. Science, 279, 555–558.
Conklin, E. J., and Smith, J. E., 2005. Abundance and spread of the
invasive red algae, Kappaphycus spp., in Kane’ohe Bay, Hawai’i
and an experimental assessment of management options. Biological Invasions, 7, 1029–1039.
Daehler, C., and Strong, D., 1997. Hybridization between introduced smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora; Poaceae) and
native California cordgrass (S. foliosa) in San Francisco Bay,
California, USA. American Journal of Botany, 84, 607–611.
Dickman, M., and Zhang, F., 1999. Mid-ocean exchange of container vessel ballast water. 2: effects of vessel type in the transport of diatoms and dinoflagellates from Manzanillo, Mexico,
to Hong Kong, China. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 176,
253–262.
Dittel, A. I., and Epifanio, C., 2009. Invasion biology of the Chinese
mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis: a brief review. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 374, 79–92.
Faasse, M. A., and Bayha, K. M., 2006. The ctenophore
Mnemiopsis leidyi A. Agassiz 1865 in coastal waters of the Netherlands: an unrecognized invasion? Aquatic Invasions, 1,
270–277.
Feist, B. E., and Simenstad, C. A., 2000. Expansion rates and
recruitment frequency of exotic smooth cordgrass, Spartina
alterniflora (Loisel), colonizing unvegetated littoral flats in
Willapa Bay, Washington. Estuaries and Coasts, 23, 267–274.
Goreau, T. J., 2008. Fighting algae in Kaneohe Bay. Science,
319, 157.
Grevstad, F. S., Strong, D. R., Garcia-Rossi, D., Switzer, R. W., and
Wecker, M. S., 2003. Biological control of Spartina alterniflora
in Willapa Bay, Washington using the planthopper Prokelisia
marginata: agent specificity and early results. Biological Control, 27, 32–42.
Grosholz, E., and Ruiz, G., 1996. Predicting the impact of introduced marine species: Lessons from the multiple invasions of
the European green crab Carcinus maenas. Biological Conservation, 78, 59–66.
Grosholz, E., and Ruiz, G., 2003. Biological invasions drive size
increases in marine and estuarine invertebrates. Ecology Letters,
6, 700–705.
Herborg, L. M., Rushton, S. P., Clare, A. S., and Bentley, M. G.,
2005. The invasion of the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir
sinensis) in the United Kingdom and its comparison to continental Europe. Biological Invasions, 7, 959–968.
Jamieson, G. S., Grosholz, E. D., Armstrong, D. A., and Elner,
R. W., 1998. Potential ecological implications from the introduction of the European green crab, Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus), to
British Columbia, Canada, and Washington, USA. Journal of
Natural History, 32, 1587–1598.
Kideys, A. E., 2002. Fall and rise of the Black Sea ecosystem. Science, 297, 1482–1484.
Kube, S., Postel, L., Honnef, C., and Augustin, C. B., 2007.
Mnemiopsis leidyi in the Baltic Sea – distribution and
overwintering between autumn 2006 and spring 2007. Aquatic
Invasions, 2, 137–145.
Leonard, G. H., Bertness, M. D., and Yund, P. O., 1999. Crab predation, waterborne cues and inducible defenses in the blue mussel,
Mytilus edulis. Ecology, 80, 1–14.
Levin, L. A., Neira, C., and Grosholz, E. D., 2006. Invasive cordgrass modifies wetland trophic function. Ecology, 87, 419–432.
McDermott, J. J., 1998. The western Pacific brachyuran
(Hemigrapsus sanguineus: Grapsidae), in its new habitat
along the Atlantic coast of the United States: geographic distribution and ecology. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 55,
289–298.
Meinesz, A., de Vaugelas, J., Hesse, B., and Mari, X., 1993. Spread
of the introduced tropical green alga Caulerpa taxifolia in northern Mediterranean waters. Journal of Applied Phycology, 5,
141–147.
370
INVASIVE SPECIES
It is rare to be able to totally eradicate a species as was
done with Caulerpa in California.
Despite these efforts, it is likely that continued environmental changes in the twenty-first century will alter both
the availability of species for transport and the degree of
susceptibility to invasions. In addition to human-caused
modifications in the local environment, climate change
will interact with the arrival of nonnative species in new
areas to modify diversity and to alter the functioning of
ecosystems around the globe.
Summary and conclusions
Many species of nonnative organisms have established
themselves in new estuaries as a result of human introduction, and the rate of introduction has been accelerating,
probably because of increased shipping with larger ships
and faster voyages. Invasions have caused extensive ecological changes in salt marshes and other coastal habitats.
It is more cost-effective to prevent invasive species from
establishing themselves than it is to try to eradicate them
once they have become established. Invasive species
threaten biodiversity, fishing, tourism, and human health.
While some progress is being made, effective solutions
appear to be a long way off (Bax et al., 2003).
Bibliography
Able, K. W., and Hagen, S. M., 2000. Effects of common reed
(Phragmites australis) invasion on marsh surface macrofauna:
response of fishes and decapod crustaceans. Estuaries, 23,
633–646.
Allin, C. C., and Husband, T. P., 2003. Mute Swan (Cygnus olor)
impact on submerged aquatic vegetation and macroinvertebrates
in a Rhode Island coastal pond. Northeastern Naturalist, 10,
305–318.
An, S. Q., et al., 2007. Spartina invasion in China: implications for
invasive species management and future research. Weed
Research, 47, 183–191.
Anderson, L., 2005. California’s reaction to Caulerpa taxifolia:
a model for invasive species rapid response. Biological Invasions, 7, 1003–1016.
Bax, N., Williamson, A., Aguero, M., Gonzalez, E., and Geeves, W.,
2003. Marine invasive alien species: a threat to global biodiversity. Marine Policy, 27, 313–323.
Benoit, L. K., and Askins, R. A., 1999. Impact of the spread of
Phragmites on the distribution of birds in Connecticut tidal
marshes. Wetlands, 19, 194–208.
Bertness, M. D., 1984. Habitat and community modification by an
introduced herbivorous snail. Ecology, 65, 370–381.
Blakeslee, A. M., Byers, J. E., and Lesser, M. P., 2008. Solving
cryptogenic histories using host and parasite molecular genetics:
the resolution of Littorina littorea’s North American origin.
Molecular Ecology, 17, 3684–3696.
Carlton, J. T., and Cohen, A. N., 1998. Periwinkle’s progress: the
Atlantic snail Littorina saxatilis (Mollusca: Gastropoda) establishes a colony on a Pacific shore. Veliger, 41, 333–338.
Carlton, J. T., and Geller, J. B., 1993. Ecological roulette: the global
transport of nonindigenous marine organisms. Science, 261,
78–82.
Cohen, A. N., and Carlton, J. T., 1998. Accelerating invasion in
a highly invaded estuary. Science, 279, 555–558.
Conklin, E. J., and Smith, J. E., 2005. Abundance and spread of the
invasive red algae, Kappaphycus spp., in Kane’ohe Bay, Hawai’i
and an experimental assessment of management options. Biological Invasions, 7, 1029–1039.
Daehler, C., and Strong, D., 1997. Hybridization between introduced smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora; Poaceae) and
native California cordgrass (S. foliosa) in San Francisco Bay,
California, USA. American Journal of Botany, 84, 607–611.
Dickman, M., and Zhang, F., 1999. Mid-ocean exchange of container vessel ballast water. 2: effects of vessel type in the transport of diatoms and dinoflagellates from Manzanillo, Mexico,
to Hong Kong, China. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 176,
253–262.
Dittel, A. I., and Epifanio, C., 2009. Invasion biology of the Chinese
mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis: a brief review. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 374, 79–92.
Faasse, M. A., and Bayha, K. M., 2006. The ctenophore
Mnemiopsis leidyi A. Agassiz 1865 in coastal waters of the Netherlands: an unrecognized invasion? Aquatic Invasions, 1,
270–277.
Feist, B. E., and Simenstad, C. A., 2000. Expansion rates and
recruitment frequency of exotic smooth cordgrass, Spartina
alterniflora (Loisel), colonizing unvegetated littoral flats in
Willapa Bay, Washington. Estuaries and Coasts, 23, 267–274.
Goreau, T. J., 2008. Fighting algae in Kaneohe Bay. Science,
319, 157.
Grevstad, F. S., Strong, D. R., Garcia-Rossi, D., Switzer, R. W., and
Wecker, M. S., 2003. Biological control of Spartina alterniflora
in Willapa Bay, Washington using the planthopper Prokelisia
marginata: agent specificity and early results. Biological Control, 27, 32–42.
Grosholz, E., and Ruiz, G., 1996. Predicting the impact of introduced marine species: Lessons from the multiple invasions of
the European green crab Carcinus maenas. Biological Conservation, 78, 59–66.
Grosholz, E., and Ruiz, G., 2003. Biological invasions drive size
increases in marine and estuarine invertebrates. Ecology Letters,
6, 700–705.
Herborg, L. M., Rushton, S. P., Clare, A. S., and Bentley, M. G.,
2005. The invasion of the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir
sinensis) in the United Kingdom and its comparison to continental Europe. Biological Invasions, 7, 959–968.
Jamieson, G. S., Grosholz, E. D., Armstrong, D. A., and Elner,
R. W., 1998. Potential ecological implications from the introduction of the European green crab, Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus), to
British Columbia, Canada, and Washington, USA. Journal of
Natural History, 32, 1587–1598.
Kideys, A. E., 2002. Fall and rise of the Black Sea ecosystem. Science, 297, 1482–1484.
Kube, S., Postel, L., Honnef, C., and Augustin, C. B., 2007.
Mnemiopsis leidyi in the Baltic Sea – distribution and
overwintering between autumn 2006 and spring 2007. Aquatic
Invasions, 2, 137–145.
Leonard, G. H., Bertness, M. D., and Yund, P. O., 1999. Crab predation, waterborne cues and inducible defenses in the blue mussel,
Mytilus edulis. Ecology, 80, 1–14.
Levin, L. A., Neira, C., and Grosholz, E. D., 2006. Invasive cordgrass modifies wetland trophic function. Ecology, 87, 419–432.
McDermott, J. J., 1998. The western Pacific brachyuran
(Hemigrapsus sanguineus: Grapsidae), in its new habitat
along the Atlantic coast of the United States: geographic distribution and ecology. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 55,
289–298.
Meinesz, A., de Vaugelas, J., Hesse, B., and Mari, X., 1993. Spread
of the introduced tropical green alga Caulerpa taxifolia in northern Mediterranean waters. Journal of Applied Phycology, 5,
141–147.
370
INVASIVE SPECIES