Nansen, F., 1922. The strandflat and isostasy, Videnskapelkapets
Skrifter 1. Math.-Naturw. Kl. (Kristiana), 11.
Narayana, A. C., and Priju, C. P., 2004. Evolution of coastal landforms and sedimentary environments of the late quaternary
period along central Kerala, southwest coast of India. Journal
of Coastal Research, SI 39, 1898–1902.
Neumann, A. C., and MacIntyre, I., 1985. Reef response to sea-level
rise: keep-up, catch-up or give-up. Proceedings of the 5th
International Coral Reef Congress, 3, 105–110.
Nichols, M. M., 1989. Sediment accumulation rates and sea-level
rise in lagoons. Marine Geology, 88, 201–219.
Nolan, T. J., Kirk, R. M., and Shulmeister, J., 1999. Beach cusp
morphology on sand and mixed sand and gravel beaches, South
Island, New Zealand. Marine Geology, 157, 185–198.
Nordstrom, K. F., Psuty, N. P., and Carter, R. W. G., 1990. Coastal
Dunes: Form and Process. London: Wiley.
Nunn, P. D., 1994. Oceanic Islands. Oxford: Blackwell.
Nunn, P. D., 2010. Pacific atolls: a world apart. In Migon, P. (ed.),
Geomorphological Landscapes of the World. New York:
Springer, pp. 349–356.
Oertel, G. F., Fowler, J. E., and Pope, J., 1985. History of erosion
and erosion control efforts at Tybee Island, Georgia.
Miscellaneous Paper CERC-85-1, Vicksburg, Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station U.S.
Ollerhead, J., and Davidson-Arnott, R. G. D., 1995. The Evolution
Of Buctouche Spit, New Brunswick, Canada. Marine Geology,
124, 215–236.
Orford, J. D., Carter, R. W. G., and Jennings, S. C., 1996. Control
domains and morphological phases in gravel- dominated coastal
barriers. Journal of Coastal Research, 12, 589–605.
Otvos, E. G., 2000. Beach ridges: definitions and significance.
Geomorphology, 32, 83–108.
Packham, J. R., Randall, R. E., Barnes, R. S. K., and Neal, A. (eds.),
2001. Ecology and Geomorphology of Coastal Shingle. New
York: Westbury Publishing.
Paterson, D. M., 1997. Biological mediation of sediment erodibility.
In Parker, R., and Watts, J. (eds.), Cohesive Sediments.
New York: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 215–229.
Pethick, J., 1984. An Introduction to Coastal Geomorphology.
New York: Edward Arnold.
Reusch, H., 1894. Strandflaten, et nyt træk i Norges geografi.
Norges Geologiske Undersokelse, 14, 1–14.
Saye, S. E., and Pye, K., 2007. Implications of sea level rise for
coastal dune habitat conservation in Wales, UK. Journal of
Coastal Conservation, 11, 31–52.
Short, A. D., 1979. Three dimensional beach-stage model. Journal
of Geology, 87, 553–571.
Short, A. D., and Aagaard, T., 1993. Single and multi- bar
beach change models. Journal of Coastal Research, SI 15,
141–157.
Smith, D. E., Cullingford, R. A., and Firth, C. R., 2000. Patterns of
isostatic land uplift during the Holocene: evidence from mainland Scotland. The Holocene, 10, 489–501.
Terry, J. P., and Goff, J., 2013. One hundred and thirty years since
Darwin: reshaping the theory of atoll formation. The Holocene,
23, 615–619.
Thom, B. G., 1984. Coastal Geomorphology in Australia. Sydney:
Academic.
Wijnberg, K. M., and Kroon, A., 2002. Barred beaches. Geomorphology, 48, 103–120.
Williams, S. J., and Gutierrez, B. T., 2009. Sea-level rise and coastal
change: causes and implications for the future coasts and
low-lying regions. Shore & Beach, 77, 13–21.
Woodroffe, C. D., 2007. The natural resilience of coastal systems:
primary concepts. In McFadden, L., Penning-Rowsell, E., and
Nicholls, R. J. (eds.), Managing Coastal Vulnerability.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 45–60.
Cross-references
Back Dune
Bar
Climate Change
Coastal Barriers
Coastal Bays
Coastal Lagoons
Deltas
Estuarine Beaches
Foredune
Mangroves
Saltmarshes
Secondary Dune
Spit
Tidal Flat
Tides
COASTAL RISKS: FLOODS
J. Javier Diez
Research Group on Marine, Coastal and Port Environment
and Other Sensitive Areas, Department of Land and
Urban Planning and Environment, Universidad
Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Definition
Flooding of coastal lands is primarily due to inundation by
the sea during storms and other natural events (e.g., tsunamis) that increase coastal population risk. Flooding also
occurs from inland waters when storm water levels hinder
evacuation.
Description
Coastal risks have very different origins and etiologies,
but current vulnerability assessments focus mainly on erosion and climate-induced floods. Generalized fluiddynamic erosion is the reason for most shore and coastal
protection measures. Tectonic plate movements may generate tsunami waves, and the resulting coastal risks can
reach great levels for vulnerable settlements. Hurricanes
and regional monsoons can also cause vast erosion and
damage to coastal zones.
Eustatic sea level is increasing due to climate change
(Figure 1), but crustal isostasy, tectonics, and coastal plain
subsidence cause variability of sea level at the local level.
Accordingly, this trend of increasing global sea level can
be accentuated in some places or attenuated and even
reversed in others. The intensity and frequency of coastal
flooding depend not only on eustasy but also on other
climate-related factors such as low-pressure systems and
strong winds that can raise the average sea level above
the current tide and generate temporary increases in basin
water levels that cause inland coastal floods (Diez et al.,
2011, 2012). A temporary rise in sea level can act as
a dam at the mouth of a river causing blockage of river
drainage and a rise in water levels on the river, on its
COASTAL RISKS: FLOODS
157
Skrifter 1. Math.-Naturw. Kl. (Kristiana), 11.
Narayana, A. C., and Priju, C. P., 2004. Evolution of coastal landforms and sedimentary environments of the late quaternary
period along central Kerala, southwest coast of India. Journal
of Coastal Research, SI 39, 1898–1902.
Neumann, A. C., and MacIntyre, I., 1985. Reef response to sea-level
rise: keep-up, catch-up or give-up. Proceedings of the 5th
International Coral Reef Congress, 3, 105–110.
Nichols, M. M., 1989. Sediment accumulation rates and sea-level
rise in lagoons. Marine Geology, 88, 201–219.
Nolan, T. J., Kirk, R. M., and Shulmeister, J., 1999. Beach cusp
morphology on sand and mixed sand and gravel beaches, South
Island, New Zealand. Marine Geology, 157, 185–198.
Nordstrom, K. F., Psuty, N. P., and Carter, R. W. G., 1990. Coastal
Dunes: Form and Process. London: Wiley.
Nunn, P. D., 1994. Oceanic Islands. Oxford: Blackwell.
Nunn, P. D., 2010. Pacific atolls: a world apart. In Migon, P. (ed.),
Geomorphological Landscapes of the World. New York:
Springer, pp. 349–356.
Oertel, G. F., Fowler, J. E., and Pope, J., 1985. History of erosion
and erosion control efforts at Tybee Island, Georgia.
Miscellaneous Paper CERC-85-1, Vicksburg, Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station U.S.
Ollerhead, J., and Davidson-Arnott, R. G. D., 1995. The Evolution
Of Buctouche Spit, New Brunswick, Canada. Marine Geology,
124, 215–236.
Orford, J. D., Carter, R. W. G., and Jennings, S. C., 1996. Control
domains and morphological phases in gravel- dominated coastal
barriers. Journal of Coastal Research, 12, 589–605.
Otvos, E. G., 2000. Beach ridges: definitions and significance.
Geomorphology, 32, 83–108.
Packham, J. R., Randall, R. E., Barnes, R. S. K., and Neal, A. (eds.),
2001. Ecology and Geomorphology of Coastal Shingle. New
York: Westbury Publishing.
Paterson, D. M., 1997. Biological mediation of sediment erodibility.
In Parker, R., and Watts, J. (eds.), Cohesive Sediments.
New York: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 215–229.
Pethick, J., 1984. An Introduction to Coastal Geomorphology.
New York: Edward Arnold.
Reusch, H., 1894. Strandflaten, et nyt træk i Norges geografi.
Norges Geologiske Undersokelse, 14, 1–14.
Saye, S. E., and Pye, K., 2007. Implications of sea level rise for
coastal dune habitat conservation in Wales, UK. Journal of
Coastal Conservation, 11, 31–52.
Short, A. D., 1979. Three dimensional beach-stage model. Journal
of Geology, 87, 553–571.
Short, A. D., and Aagaard, T., 1993. Single and multi- bar
beach change models. Journal of Coastal Research, SI 15,
141–157.
Smith, D. E., Cullingford, R. A., and Firth, C. R., 2000. Patterns of
isostatic land uplift during the Holocene: evidence from mainland Scotland. The Holocene, 10, 489–501.
Terry, J. P., and Goff, J., 2013. One hundred and thirty years since
Darwin: reshaping the theory of atoll formation. The Holocene,
23, 615–619.
Thom, B. G., 1984. Coastal Geomorphology in Australia. Sydney:
Academic.
Wijnberg, K. M., and Kroon, A., 2002. Barred beaches. Geomorphology, 48, 103–120.
Williams, S. J., and Gutierrez, B. T., 2009. Sea-level rise and coastal
change: causes and implications for the future coasts and
low-lying regions. Shore & Beach, 77, 13–21.
Woodroffe, C. D., 2007. The natural resilience of coastal systems:
primary concepts. In McFadden, L., Penning-Rowsell, E., and
Nicholls, R. J. (eds.), Managing Coastal Vulnerability.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 45–60.
Cross-references
Back Dune
Bar
Climate Change
Coastal Barriers
Coastal Bays
Coastal Lagoons
Deltas
Estuarine Beaches
Foredune
Mangroves
Saltmarshes
Secondary Dune
Spit
Tidal Flat
Tides
COASTAL RISKS: FLOODS
J. Javier Diez
Research Group on Marine, Coastal and Port Environment
and Other Sensitive Areas, Department of Land and
Urban Planning and Environment, Universidad
Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Definition
Flooding of coastal lands is primarily due to inundation by
the sea during storms and other natural events (e.g., tsunamis) that increase coastal population risk. Flooding also
occurs from inland waters when storm water levels hinder
evacuation.
Description
Coastal risks have very different origins and etiologies,
but current vulnerability assessments focus mainly on erosion and climate-induced floods. Generalized fluiddynamic erosion is the reason for most shore and coastal
protection measures. Tectonic plate movements may generate tsunami waves, and the resulting coastal risks can
reach great levels for vulnerable settlements. Hurricanes
and regional monsoons can also cause vast erosion and
damage to coastal zones.
Eustatic sea level is increasing due to climate change
(Figure 1), but crustal isostasy, tectonics, and coastal plain
subsidence cause variability of sea level at the local level.
Accordingly, this trend of increasing global sea level can
be accentuated in some places or attenuated and even
reversed in others. The intensity and frequency of coastal
flooding depend not only on eustasy but also on other
climate-related factors such as low-pressure systems and
strong winds that can raise the average sea level above
the current tide and generate temporary increases in basin
water levels that cause inland coastal floods (Diez et al.,
2011, 2012). A temporary rise in sea level can act as
a dam at the mouth of a river causing blockage of river
drainage and a rise in water levels on the river, on its
COASTAL RISKS: FLOODS
157