between 1981 and 1991, has subsided as a direct
consequence of nuclear tests (Keating, 1998). Many atolls
exhibit major arcuate “bight-like” structures in their plan
form. These departures from circular or elliptical forms
are indicative of geomorphological processes that cannot
be ignored (Terry and Goff, 2013).
Summary
The coastal landforms, carved out during the Late Quaternary period, are influenced and modified primarily by
sea-level changes, ocean and river-mouth processes,
sediment nature and its supply, and human activity. The
important depositional coastal landforms are barrier islands,
coastal bars, lagoonal systems, and mudflats that are characterized mostly by tides, waves, currents, and grain size,
as well as beaches and spits that occur in all tide and wave
conditions. In the formation of spits, wave refraction and
longshore drift, apart from coastal configuration, play an
important role. Beach ridges and chenier plains are indicators of past sea-level changes, climatic conditions, wave
regime, and sediment supply. Coastal dunes represent geomorphological landscapes that are reworked by climate
drivers such as local precipitation, temperature, and wind.
Transgressive dune fields indicate high wind and wave
energy coasts with large sediment supply.
Coral reefs mainly confine to 25
N – 25
S latitudes,
and their occurrence suggests that sea-surface temperatures play an important role in their distribution. Based
on the morphology, reefs are classified into atoll, barrier,
and fringe reefs. Darwin (1842) was the first who
proposed a theory on evolution of coral reefs, and he
hypothesized that subsiding volcanic islands correspond
with upward growth of fringing and barrier coral reefs
keeping pace with relative sea-level rise.
The impact of human activities is the primary concern
for the fragile nature of coastal landforms and coastal
ecosystems.
Bibliography
Augustinus, P. G. E. F., 1989. Cheniers and chenier plains: a general
introduction. Marine Geology, 90, 219–229.
Bird, E., 2000. Coastal Geomorphology: An Introduction. New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Birkeland, C. E., 1997. Life and Death of Coral Reefs. New York:
Chapman and Hall.
Boothroyd, J. C., 1985. Tidal inlets and tidal deltas. In Davis, R. A.
(ed.), Coastal Sedimentary Environments, 2nd edn. New York:
Springer, pp. 445–532.
Carter, R. W. G., 1986. The morphodynamics of beach-ridge
formation: Magilligan: Northern Ireland. Marine Geology, 73,
191–214.
Carter, R. W. G., 1988. Coastal Environments. New York:
Academic.
Carter, R. W. G., 1991. Near-future sea level impacts on coastal
dune landscapes. Landscape Ecology, 6, 29–39.
Carter, R. W. G., and Orford, J. 1991. The sedimentary organization
and behavior of drift-aligned barriers, Coastal Sediments '91.
American Society Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 934–948.
Carter, R. W. G., and Wilson, P., 1990. The geomorphological,
ecological and pedological development of coastal foredunes at
Magilligan Point, Northern Ireland. In Nordstrom, K. E., Psuty,
N., and Carter, R. W. G. (eds.), Coastal Dunes: Form and
Process. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 129–157.
Cooper, W. S., 1967. Coastal Sand Dunes of California. Boulder:
Geological Society of America Memoir.
Darwin, C., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
London: Smith Elder & Company.
Eisma, D., 1998. Intertidal Deposits: River Mouths, Tidal Flats, and
Coastal Lagoons. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Fagherazzi, S., and Furbish, D. J., 2001. On the shape and widening
of salt marsh creeks. Journal of Geophysical Research, 106,
991–1003, doi:10.1029/1999JC000115. issn: 0148-0227.
FitGerald, D. M., Fenster, S. M., Argow, B., and Buynevich, I. V.,
2008. Coastal impacts due to sea level rise. Annual Reviews of
Earth and Planetary Sciences, 36, 601–647.
Flood, P. G., 2001. The ‘Darwin Point’ of Pacific Ocean atolls and
guyots: a reappraisal. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, 175, 147–152.
French, J. R., and Stoddart, D. R., 1992. Hydrodynamics of salt
marsh creek systems: implications for marsh morphological
development and material exchange. Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms, 17, 235–252.
Garrick, R. A., 1979. Late Holocene uplift at Te Araroa, Ease Cape,
North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology
and Geophysics, 22, 131–139.
Greenwood, B., and Davidson-Arnott, R. G. D., 1979. Sedimentation and equilibrium in wave-formed bars: a review and case
study. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 16, 312–322.
Grigg, R. W., 1988. Paleoceanography of coral reefs in the
Hawaiian Emperor chain. Science, 240, 1737–1743.
Hayes, M. O., 1975. Morphology of sand accumulations in
estuaries. In Cronin, L. E. (ed.), Estuarine Research. New York:
Academic, Vol. 2, pp. 3–22.
Hayes, M. O., 1979. Barrier island morphology as a function of tidal
and wave regime. In Leatherman, S. P. (ed.), Barrier Islands.
New York: Academic.
Hayes, M. O., 1980. General morphology and sediment patterns in
tidal inlets. Sedimentary Geology, 26, 139–156.
Hughes, M., and Turner, I., 1999. The beach face. In Short, A. D.
(ed.), Handbook of Beach and Shoreface Morphodynamics.
Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 119–144.
Jackson, D. W. T., and Cooper, J. A. G., 2011. Coastal dune fields in
Ireland: rapid regional response to climatic change. Journal of
Coastal Research, SI 64, 293–297.
Keating, B. H., 1998. Nuclear testing in the Pacific from
a Geological Perspective. In Terry, J. P. (ed.), Climate and
Environmental Change in the Pacific. School of Social and
Economic Development, The University of the South Pacific,
pp. 113–144.
Kirk, R. M., 1980. Mixed sand and gravel beaches: morphology,
processes and sediments. Progress in Physical Geography, 4,
189–210.
Larsen, E., and Holtedahl, H., 1985. The Norwegian strandflat:
a reconsideration of its age and origin. Norsk Geologiske
Tidsskrift, 65, 247–254.
Lick, W., and Huang, H., 1993. Flocculation and the physical
properties of flocs. In Mehta, A. J. (ed.), Nearshore and
Estuarine Cohesive Sediment Transport. Washington, DC:
American Geophysical Union, pp. 21–39.
Masselink, G., and Short, A. D., 1993. The effect of tide range on
beach morphodynamics and morphology: a conceptual beach
model. Journal of Coastal Research, 9, 785–800.
Masselink, G., Hegge, B. J., and Pattiaratchi, C. B., 1998. Beach cusp
morphodynamics. Earth Surface Process: Land, 22, 1139–1155.
Murray-Wallace, C. V., and Belperio, A. P., 1991. The last interglacial shoreline in Australia – a review. Quaternary Science
Reviews, 10, 441–461.
156
COASTAL LANDFORMS
consequence of nuclear tests (Keating, 1998). Many atolls
exhibit major arcuate “bight-like” structures in their plan
form. These departures from circular or elliptical forms
are indicative of geomorphological processes that cannot
be ignored (Terry and Goff, 2013).
Summary
The coastal landforms, carved out during the Late Quaternary period, are influenced and modified primarily by
sea-level changes, ocean and river-mouth processes,
sediment nature and its supply, and human activity. The
important depositional coastal landforms are barrier islands,
coastal bars, lagoonal systems, and mudflats that are characterized mostly by tides, waves, currents, and grain size,
as well as beaches and spits that occur in all tide and wave
conditions. In the formation of spits, wave refraction and
longshore drift, apart from coastal configuration, play an
important role. Beach ridges and chenier plains are indicators of past sea-level changes, climatic conditions, wave
regime, and sediment supply. Coastal dunes represent geomorphological landscapes that are reworked by climate
drivers such as local precipitation, temperature, and wind.
Transgressive dune fields indicate high wind and wave
energy coasts with large sediment supply.
Coral reefs mainly confine to 25
N – 25
S latitudes,
and their occurrence suggests that sea-surface temperatures play an important role in their distribution. Based
on the morphology, reefs are classified into atoll, barrier,
and fringe reefs. Darwin (1842) was the first who
proposed a theory on evolution of coral reefs, and he
hypothesized that subsiding volcanic islands correspond
with upward growth of fringing and barrier coral reefs
keeping pace with relative sea-level rise.
The impact of human activities is the primary concern
for the fragile nature of coastal landforms and coastal
ecosystems.
Bibliography
Augustinus, P. G. E. F., 1989. Cheniers and chenier plains: a general
introduction. Marine Geology, 90, 219–229.
Bird, E., 2000. Coastal Geomorphology: An Introduction. New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Birkeland, C. E., 1997. Life and Death of Coral Reefs. New York:
Chapman and Hall.
Boothroyd, J. C., 1985. Tidal inlets and tidal deltas. In Davis, R. A.
(ed.), Coastal Sedimentary Environments, 2nd edn. New York:
Springer, pp. 445–532.
Carter, R. W. G., 1986. The morphodynamics of beach-ridge
formation: Magilligan: Northern Ireland. Marine Geology, 73,
191–214.
Carter, R. W. G., 1988. Coastal Environments. New York:
Academic.
Carter, R. W. G., 1991. Near-future sea level impacts on coastal
dune landscapes. Landscape Ecology, 6, 29–39.
Carter, R. W. G., and Orford, J. 1991. The sedimentary organization
and behavior of drift-aligned barriers, Coastal Sediments '91.
American Society Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 934–948.
Carter, R. W. G., and Wilson, P., 1990. The geomorphological,
ecological and pedological development of coastal foredunes at
Magilligan Point, Northern Ireland. In Nordstrom, K. E., Psuty,
N., and Carter, R. W. G. (eds.), Coastal Dunes: Form and
Process. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 129–157.
Cooper, W. S., 1967. Coastal Sand Dunes of California. Boulder:
Geological Society of America Memoir.
Darwin, C., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
London: Smith Elder & Company.
Eisma, D., 1998. Intertidal Deposits: River Mouths, Tidal Flats, and
Coastal Lagoons. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Fagherazzi, S., and Furbish, D. J., 2001. On the shape and widening
of salt marsh creeks. Journal of Geophysical Research, 106,
991–1003, doi:10.1029/1999JC000115. issn: 0148-0227.
FitGerald, D. M., Fenster, S. M., Argow, B., and Buynevich, I. V.,
2008. Coastal impacts due to sea level rise. Annual Reviews of
Earth and Planetary Sciences, 36, 601–647.
Flood, P. G., 2001. The ‘Darwin Point’ of Pacific Ocean atolls and
guyots: a reappraisal. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, 175, 147–152.
French, J. R., and Stoddart, D. R., 1992. Hydrodynamics of salt
marsh creek systems: implications for marsh morphological
development and material exchange. Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms, 17, 235–252.
Garrick, R. A., 1979. Late Holocene uplift at Te Araroa, Ease Cape,
North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology
and Geophysics, 22, 131–139.
Greenwood, B., and Davidson-Arnott, R. G. D., 1979. Sedimentation and equilibrium in wave-formed bars: a review and case
study. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 16, 312–322.
Grigg, R. W., 1988. Paleoceanography of coral reefs in the
Hawaiian Emperor chain. Science, 240, 1737–1743.
Hayes, M. O., 1975. Morphology of sand accumulations in
estuaries. In Cronin, L. E. (ed.), Estuarine Research. New York:
Academic, Vol. 2, pp. 3–22.
Hayes, M. O., 1979. Barrier island morphology as a function of tidal
and wave regime. In Leatherman, S. P. (ed.), Barrier Islands.
New York: Academic.
Hayes, M. O., 1980. General morphology and sediment patterns in
tidal inlets. Sedimentary Geology, 26, 139–156.
Hughes, M., and Turner, I., 1999. The beach face. In Short, A. D.
(ed.), Handbook of Beach and Shoreface Morphodynamics.
Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 119–144.
Jackson, D. W. T., and Cooper, J. A. G., 2011. Coastal dune fields in
Ireland: rapid regional response to climatic change. Journal of
Coastal Research, SI 64, 293–297.
Keating, B. H., 1998. Nuclear testing in the Pacific from
a Geological Perspective. In Terry, J. P. (ed.), Climate and
Environmental Change in the Pacific. School of Social and
Economic Development, The University of the South Pacific,
pp. 113–144.
Kirk, R. M., 1980. Mixed sand and gravel beaches: morphology,
processes and sediments. Progress in Physical Geography, 4,
189–210.
Larsen, E., and Holtedahl, H., 1985. The Norwegian strandflat:
a reconsideration of its age and origin. Norsk Geologiske
Tidsskrift, 65, 247–254.
Lick, W., and Huang, H., 1993. Flocculation and the physical
properties of flocs. In Mehta, A. J. (ed.), Nearshore and
Estuarine Cohesive Sediment Transport. Washington, DC:
American Geophysical Union, pp. 21–39.
Masselink, G., and Short, A. D., 1993. The effect of tide range on
beach morphodynamics and morphology: a conceptual beach
model. Journal of Coastal Research, 9, 785–800.
Masselink, G., Hegge, B. J., and Pattiaratchi, C. B., 1998. Beach cusp
morphodynamics. Earth Surface Process: Land, 22, 1139–1155.
Murray-Wallace, C. V., and Belperio, A. P., 1991. The last interglacial shoreline in Australia – a review. Quaternary Science
Reviews, 10, 441–461.
156
COASTAL LANDFORMS