(Higgins et al., 2011, 2013; Levinton et al., 2011;
Shumway, 2011; Piehler and Smyth, 2011; Kellogg et al.,
2013; Smyth et al., 2013).
Summary
Bivalves, especially reef-forming species (see DeAlteris,
1988, and Figure 1 in Waldbusser et al., 2013), are important habitat formers in many estuaries worldwide (Kirby,
2004; Beck et al., 2009). Bivalve populations (e.g., mussels) often have positive synergies with other habitats such
as sea grasses (Williams and Heck, 2001; Coen et al.,
2011a). Similarly, some oyster species (e.g., Crassostrea
gigas), through direct and accidental introductions, are
having significant negative impacts on many native species (Europe, Smaal et al., 2005; Nehls and Büttger,
2007; Kochmann et al., 2008). Impacting one habitat can
often impact another in various ways. Because of their
numerous ecosystem services, they are in many places
being enhanced or restored from current often depauperate
levels. A major effort in assessing their current status and
eventually trends for triaging these recovery efforts (e.g.,
in the Gulf of Mexico, post-Deepwater Horizon) requires
that habitats be mapped in advance and put into a GIS
geodatabase (SCDNR, 2008; see http://www.dnr.sc.gov/
GIS/descoysterbed.html). Approaches for their population
assessment entails consistent approaches and good
designs for monitoring natural and recovering
populations. The importance of population connectivity
(metapopulations) needs to also be considered for restoration efforts over larger spatial scales (Lipcius et al. 2008,
2009; Schulte et al., 2009). Goals and related success
criteria need to be developed whether they are intertidal,
shallow, subtidal, or in deeper estuaries and surrounding
waters (see http://www.oyster-restoration.org/). Climate
change, shoreline erosion (and related fringing habitat
loss), changes in native and nonnative (introduced) diseases, competitors, and predator introductions will impact
estuaries and the native and cultured bivalves in these systems. Sea level rise, increased hypoxic zones, and other
challenges will create habitat winners and losers in estuaries. Oyster reefs are potentially one of the nine important
nearshore habitats that will protect coastal communities
and infrastructure (Arkema et al., 2013; Grizzle and Coen,
2013). Aquaculture will have an increasing role in bivalve
sustainability (Beck et al., 2009; Brumbaugh and Coen,
2009; Dumbauld et al., 2009; NRC, 2010; Shumway,
2011).
Bibliography
Abadie, S. W., and Poirrier, M. A., 2000. Increased density of large
Rangia clams in Lake Pontchartrain after the cessation of shell
dredging. Journal of Shellfish Research, 19, 481–485.
Abbott, R. T., 1974. American Seashells: The Marine Molluska of
the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts of North America, 2nd edn.
New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 663 pp.
Abraham, B. J. and P. L. Dillon, 1986. Species profiles: life histories
and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and
invertebrates (Mid-Atlantic): softshell clam. US Fish and Wildl.
Serv. Biol. Rep. 82, TR-EL-82-4.
Airoldi, L., and Beck, M. W., 2007. Loss, status and trends for
coastal marine habitats of Europe. Oceanography and Marine
Biology. Annual Review, 45, 345–405.
Allison, E. H., Badjeck, M.-C., and Meinhold, K., 2011. The implications of global climate change for molluscan aquaculture,
Ch. 17. In Shumway, S. E. (ed.), Shellfish Aquaculture and the
Environment. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 461–490.
Altieri, A. H., and Witman, J. D., 2006. Local extinction of
a foundation species in a hypoxic estuary: integrating individuals
to ecosystem. Ecology, 87, 717–730.
Arkema, K. K., Guannel, G., Verutes, G., Wood, S. A., Guerry, A.,
Ruckelshaus, M., Kareiva, P., Lacayo, M., and Silver, J. M.,
2013. Coastal habitats shield people and property from
sea-level rise and storms. Nature Climate Change, 3, 913–918.
Ambrose, W. G., Jr., and Irlandi, E. A., 1992. Height of attachment
on seagrass leads to trade-off between growth and survival in the
bay scallop Argopecten irradians. Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 90, 45–51.
Anderson, W. D., Keith, W. J., Tuten, W. R., and Mills, F. H., 1979.
A Survey of South Carolina’s Washed Shell Resource. South
Carolina: Charleston. South Carolina Wildlife and Marine
Resources Department Technical Report No. 36.
Arnold, W. S., 2008. Application of larval release for restocking and
stock enhancement of coastal marine bivalve populations.
Reviews in Fisheries Science, 16, 65–71.
Arnold, W. S., 2009. The Bay Scallop, Argopecten irradians, in
Florida Coastal Waters. Marine Fisheries Review, 71, 1–7.
ASMFC, 2007. The Importance of Habitat Created by Shellfish and
Shell Beds Along the Atlantic Coast of the U.S., Prepared by
L.D. Coen, and R. Grizzle, with contributions by J. Lowery and
K.T. Paynter, Jr., Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission,
Habitat Management Series #8, Washington, D.C., 108 pp. see
http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file/hms8ShellfishDocument.pdf
Baggett, L. P., Powers, S. P., Brumbaugh, R., Coen, L. D.,
DeAngelis, B., Green, J., Hancock, B., and Morlock, S., 2014.
Oyster Habitat Restoration Monitoring and Assessment
Handbook. Arlington, VA: The Nature Conservancy. 96 pp.
Bahr, L. M., and Lanier, W. P., 1981. The ecology of intertidal oyster
reefs of the South Atlantic Coast: a community profile. U. S. Fish
Wildlife Service. Program FWS/OBS/ -81/15, Washington, DC,
105pp. see http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/athos/pdf/Bahr
%20and%20Lanier%201981.pdf
Baker, S. M., and Mann, R., 1992. Effects of hypoxia and anoxia on
larval settlement, juvenile growth, and juvenile survival of the
oyster Crassostrea virginica. Biology Bulletin, 192, 265–269.
Balbo, A., Briz Godino, I., Álvarez, M., and Madella, M., 2011.
Shell midden research: an interdisciplinary agenda for the Quaternary and social sciences. Quaternary International, 239,
1–170.
Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. W., Stier, A. C.,
and Silliman, B. R., 2011. The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs, 81, 169–193.
Beck, M. W., Heck, K. L., Jr., Able, K. W., Childers, D. L.,
Eggleston, D., Gillanders, B. M., Halpern, B. S., Hays, C. G.,
Hoshino, K., Minello, T. J., Orth, R. J., Sheridan, P. F., and
Weinstein, M. P., 2001. The identification, conservation, and
management of estuarine and marine nurseries for fish and invertebrates. BioScience, 51, 633–641.
Beck, M. W., Heck, K. L., Childers, D., Eggleston, D., Gillanders,
B., Halpern, B., Hays, C., Hoshino, K., Minello, T., Orth, R.,
Sheridan, P., and Weinstein, M., 2003. The Role of Nearshore
Ecosystems as Fish and Shellfish Nurseries. Washington, DC:
ESA. Issues in Ecology, Vol. 11, pp. 1–12.
Beck, M. W., Brumbaugh, R. D., Airoldi, L., Carranza, A., Coen,
L. D., Crawford, C., Defeo, O., Edgar, G. J., Hancock, B., Kay,
BIVALVE MOLLUSCS
101
Shumway, 2011; Piehler and Smyth, 2011; Kellogg et al.,
2013; Smyth et al., 2013).
Summary
Bivalves, especially reef-forming species (see DeAlteris,
1988, and Figure 1 in Waldbusser et al., 2013), are important habitat formers in many estuaries worldwide (Kirby,
2004; Beck et al., 2009). Bivalve populations (e.g., mussels) often have positive synergies with other habitats such
as sea grasses (Williams and Heck, 2001; Coen et al.,
2011a). Similarly, some oyster species (e.g., Crassostrea
gigas), through direct and accidental introductions, are
having significant negative impacts on many native species (Europe, Smaal et al., 2005; Nehls and Büttger,
2007; Kochmann et al., 2008). Impacting one habitat can
often impact another in various ways. Because of their
numerous ecosystem services, they are in many places
being enhanced or restored from current often depauperate
levels. A major effort in assessing their current status and
eventually trends for triaging these recovery efforts (e.g.,
in the Gulf of Mexico, post-Deepwater Horizon) requires
that habitats be mapped in advance and put into a GIS
geodatabase (SCDNR, 2008; see http://www.dnr.sc.gov/
GIS/descoysterbed.html). Approaches for their population
assessment entails consistent approaches and good
designs for monitoring natural and recovering
populations. The importance of population connectivity
(metapopulations) needs to also be considered for restoration efforts over larger spatial scales (Lipcius et al. 2008,
2009; Schulte et al., 2009). Goals and related success
criteria need to be developed whether they are intertidal,
shallow, subtidal, or in deeper estuaries and surrounding
waters (see http://www.oyster-restoration.org/). Climate
change, shoreline erosion (and related fringing habitat
loss), changes in native and nonnative (introduced) diseases, competitors, and predator introductions will impact
estuaries and the native and cultured bivalves in these systems. Sea level rise, increased hypoxic zones, and other
challenges will create habitat winners and losers in estuaries. Oyster reefs are potentially one of the nine important
nearshore habitats that will protect coastal communities
and infrastructure (Arkema et al., 2013; Grizzle and Coen,
2013). Aquaculture will have an increasing role in bivalve
sustainability (Beck et al., 2009; Brumbaugh and Coen,
2009; Dumbauld et al., 2009; NRC, 2010; Shumway,
2011).
Bibliography
Abadie, S. W., and Poirrier, M. A., 2000. Increased density of large
Rangia clams in Lake Pontchartrain after the cessation of shell
dredging. Journal of Shellfish Research, 19, 481–485.
Abbott, R. T., 1974. American Seashells: The Marine Molluska of
the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts of North America, 2nd edn.
New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 663 pp.
Abraham, B. J. and P. L. Dillon, 1986. Species profiles: life histories
and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and
invertebrates (Mid-Atlantic): softshell clam. US Fish and Wildl.
Serv. Biol. Rep. 82, TR-EL-82-4.
Airoldi, L., and Beck, M. W., 2007. Loss, status and trends for
coastal marine habitats of Europe. Oceanography and Marine
Biology. Annual Review, 45, 345–405.
Allison, E. H., Badjeck, M.-C., and Meinhold, K., 2011. The implications of global climate change for molluscan aquaculture,
Ch. 17. In Shumway, S. E. (ed.), Shellfish Aquaculture and the
Environment. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 461–490.
Altieri, A. H., and Witman, J. D., 2006. Local extinction of
a foundation species in a hypoxic estuary: integrating individuals
to ecosystem. Ecology, 87, 717–730.
Arkema, K. K., Guannel, G., Verutes, G., Wood, S. A., Guerry, A.,
Ruckelshaus, M., Kareiva, P., Lacayo, M., and Silver, J. M.,
2013. Coastal habitats shield people and property from
sea-level rise and storms. Nature Climate Change, 3, 913–918.
Ambrose, W. G., Jr., and Irlandi, E. A., 1992. Height of attachment
on seagrass leads to trade-off between growth and survival in the
bay scallop Argopecten irradians. Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 90, 45–51.
Anderson, W. D., Keith, W. J., Tuten, W. R., and Mills, F. H., 1979.
A Survey of South Carolina’s Washed Shell Resource. South
Carolina: Charleston. South Carolina Wildlife and Marine
Resources Department Technical Report No. 36.
Arnold, W. S., 2008. Application of larval release for restocking and
stock enhancement of coastal marine bivalve populations.
Reviews in Fisheries Science, 16, 65–71.
Arnold, W. S., 2009. The Bay Scallop, Argopecten irradians, in
Florida Coastal Waters. Marine Fisheries Review, 71, 1–7.
ASMFC, 2007. The Importance of Habitat Created by Shellfish and
Shell Beds Along the Atlantic Coast of the U.S., Prepared by
L.D. Coen, and R. Grizzle, with contributions by J. Lowery and
K.T. Paynter, Jr., Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission,
Habitat Management Series #8, Washington, D.C., 108 pp. see
http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file/hms8ShellfishDocument.pdf
Baggett, L. P., Powers, S. P., Brumbaugh, R., Coen, L. D.,
DeAngelis, B., Green, J., Hancock, B., and Morlock, S., 2014.
Oyster Habitat Restoration Monitoring and Assessment
Handbook. Arlington, VA: The Nature Conservancy. 96 pp.
Bahr, L. M., and Lanier, W. P., 1981. The ecology of intertidal oyster
reefs of the South Atlantic Coast: a community profile. U. S. Fish
Wildlife Service. Program FWS/OBS/ -81/15, Washington, DC,
105pp. see http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/northeast/athos/pdf/Bahr
%20and%20Lanier%201981.pdf
Baker, S. M., and Mann, R., 1992. Effects of hypoxia and anoxia on
larval settlement, juvenile growth, and juvenile survival of the
oyster Crassostrea virginica. Biology Bulletin, 192, 265–269.
Balbo, A., Briz Godino, I., Álvarez, M., and Madella, M., 2011.
Shell midden research: an interdisciplinary agenda for the Quaternary and social sciences. Quaternary International, 239,
1–170.
Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. W., Stier, A. C.,
and Silliman, B. R., 2011. The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs, 81, 169–193.
Beck, M. W., Heck, K. L., Jr., Able, K. W., Childers, D. L.,
Eggleston, D., Gillanders, B. M., Halpern, B. S., Hays, C. G.,
Hoshino, K., Minello, T. J., Orth, R. J., Sheridan, P. F., and
Weinstein, M. P., 2001. The identification, conservation, and
management of estuarine and marine nurseries for fish and invertebrates. BioScience, 51, 633–641.
Beck, M. W., Heck, K. L., Childers, D., Eggleston, D., Gillanders,
B., Halpern, B., Hays, C., Hoshino, K., Minello, T., Orth, R.,
Sheridan, P., and Weinstein, M., 2003. The Role of Nearshore
Ecosystems as Fish and Shellfish Nurseries. Washington, DC:
ESA. Issues in Ecology, Vol. 11, pp. 1–12.
Beck, M. W., Brumbaugh, R. D., Airoldi, L., Carranza, A., Coen,
L. D., Crawford, C., Defeo, O., Edgar, G. J., Hancock, B., Kay,
BIVALVE MOLLUSCS
101