tical average every thousandth harbor approach or after 50 years of regular tanker
service. This comes out to an average loss of 87 g per t of oil shipped. Accidents on
oil platforms account for a loss of 72 g per t of oil (Beyer and Painter 1977). Other
calculations indicate that a loss figure of 2.2 g per t oil is due when loading or unloading oil. However, this figure can be reduced. In the British oil harbor of Milford, only
0.6 g per t of transferred oil are lost. Large mishaps are omitted from this figure, and
speculation is still imprecise whether or not a 100,000 t oil accident every 25 years in
the area of the North Sea and a 400,000 t oil accident every 50 years must from a
statistical standpoint be reckoned with (Johnston 1976b), or that one tanker accident of above 135 t is due for every 437 million t of oil shipped through the North
Sea (Department of the Environment 1976). Probably the many tanker accidents of
the past years make new calculations necessary.
About 75% of all tanker accidents are caused by human error. Accidents occur more
frequently on tankers which sail under cheap flags and are registered in states where
safety regulations and crew requirements are not so rigid as in states with high standard (Clark 1978a). Three thousand one hundred and eighty three accidents with
tankers above 2000 gross tons have been registered between 1969 and 1973, which
resulted in 452 cases of oil pollution. Causes of the accidents were 123 times running
aground, 126 times collisions, 94 times structural weaknesses of ship or equipment,
46 times ramming the pier, 11 times a breakdown of the engine, 17 times fire and
31 times explosions. As a consequence of these accidents about 1 million t of oil was
released into the sea (Grossling 1977). Oil accidents registered in 1974 off the coasts
of the U.S.A. refer to 53% crude oil, 11% fuel oil, 11% heavy fuel oil, 7% diesel oil,
6% gasoline, 5% chemicals and 4% other qualities (Boyd et al. 1977).
The Federal Republic of Germany imports 41 % of its oil needs through North Sea
harbors. In 1977, 26 million t were imported through Wilhelmshaven, Emden, and
the harbors on the Weser River, 14 million t through Brunsbiittel and the Elbe River
harbors.
Worldwide, a total of 216 "large" oil spills were noted between 1960 and 1975. Only
one accident of this size took place in the coastal area of the Federal Republic of
Germany (Van Gelder-Ottway and Knight 1976): On February 20, 1966, the Norwegian tanker "Anne Mildred Bravig", loaded with 39,000 t of Iranian crude oil, collided with a British ship in thick fog between light buoys P6 and P7 on the ElbeHumber route in the North Sea west of Helgoland and caught fire. Stern down, the
tanker later sank to the 37-m-deep North Sea bottom. Approximately 16,000 t of oil
escaped. Of this, 200-3000 t were combated with 70 t of dispersants, costing approximately DM 900,000. Because the direction of the wind was favorable, the rest of
the oil quickly disappeared without causing damage to the German coastal areas
(Drost 1966).
Since that time, the coast of Germany has also been fortunate. True, the Kuwaiti
tanker "AI Founta" did ram the oil pier in Wilhelmshaven in 1974 when a reverse
maneuver error was made. 40 t of oil did spill out, but the tanker was able to make
its way back out into the open North Sea, despite the fact that the water was running
away with the tide. The tanker's draft was so deep that it just barely kept off the
bottom at high tide in the 300 m large Jade channel. In the fall of 1976, the Liberian
"Energy Vitality" with 200,000 t of crude oil got stuck in the Jade, as did the
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service. This comes out to an average loss of 87 g per t of oil shipped. Accidents on
oil platforms account for a loss of 72 g per t of oil (Beyer and Painter 1977). Other
calculations indicate that a loss figure of 2.2 g per t oil is due when loading or unloading oil. However, this figure can be reduced. In the British oil harbor of Milford, only
0.6 g per t of transferred oil are lost. Large mishaps are omitted from this figure, and
speculation is still imprecise whether or not a 100,000 t oil accident every 25 years in
the area of the North Sea and a 400,000 t oil accident every 50 years must from a
statistical standpoint be reckoned with (Johnston 1976b), or that one tanker accident of above 135 t is due for every 437 million t of oil shipped through the North
Sea (Department of the Environment 1976). Probably the many tanker accidents of
the past years make new calculations necessary.
About 75% of all tanker accidents are caused by human error. Accidents occur more
frequently on tankers which sail under cheap flags and are registered in states where
safety regulations and crew requirements are not so rigid as in states with high standard (Clark 1978a). Three thousand one hundred and eighty three accidents with
tankers above 2000 gross tons have been registered between 1969 and 1973, which
resulted in 452 cases of oil pollution. Causes of the accidents were 123 times running
aground, 126 times collisions, 94 times structural weaknesses of ship or equipment,
46 times ramming the pier, 11 times a breakdown of the engine, 17 times fire and
31 times explosions. As a consequence of these accidents about 1 million t of oil was
released into the sea (Grossling 1977). Oil accidents registered in 1974 off the coasts
of the U.S.A. refer to 53% crude oil, 11% fuel oil, 11% heavy fuel oil, 7% diesel oil,
6% gasoline, 5% chemicals and 4% other qualities (Boyd et al. 1977).
The Federal Republic of Germany imports 41 % of its oil needs through North Sea
harbors. In 1977, 26 million t were imported through Wilhelmshaven, Emden, and
the harbors on the Weser River, 14 million t through Brunsbiittel and the Elbe River
harbors.
Worldwide, a total of 216 "large" oil spills were noted between 1960 and 1975. Only
one accident of this size took place in the coastal area of the Federal Republic of
Germany (Van Gelder-Ottway and Knight 1976): On February 20, 1966, the Norwegian tanker "Anne Mildred Bravig", loaded with 39,000 t of Iranian crude oil, collided with a British ship in thick fog between light buoys P6 and P7 on the ElbeHumber route in the North Sea west of Helgoland and caught fire. Stern down, the
tanker later sank to the 37-m-deep North Sea bottom. Approximately 16,000 t of oil
escaped. Of this, 200-3000 t were combated with 70 t of dispersants, costing approximately DM 900,000. Because the direction of the wind was favorable, the rest of
the oil quickly disappeared without causing damage to the German coastal areas
(Drost 1966).
Since that time, the coast of Germany has also been fortunate. True, the Kuwaiti
tanker "AI Founta" did ram the oil pier in Wilhelmshaven in 1974 when a reverse
maneuver error was made. 40 t of oil did spill out, but the tanker was able to make
its way back out into the open North Sea, despite the fact that the water was running
away with the tide. The tanker's draft was so deep that it just barely kept off the
bottom at high tide in the 300 m large Jade channel. In the fall of 1976, the Liberian
"Energy Vitality" with 200,000 t of crude oil got stuck in the Jade, as did the
84