642
August, being responsible for maintain the mesothermal climate gradients. The contact between the intertropical and polar air masses forms the Atlantic Polar Front,
responsible for the rainfall distribution along the year. The annual rainfall in the
region ranges between 1460 and 1820 mm, with 129–144 days of rain. At the estuary itself, these values are between 1000 and 1250 mm (monthly average: 100–
300 mm), concentrated between January and March (Fig. 20.2d) (EPAGRI 2014).
20.3 Ecological Services, Land Use and Anthropogenic
Impacts
20.3.1 Parnaíba River Delta
Parnaíba city is 14 km upstream from the Parnaíba Delta, but urban settlement in the
region accompanied extractive activities of forest products, as maniçoba rubber
(Manihot esculenta), babaçú oil (Orbignya phalerata) and carnaúba wax (Copernicia
prunifera) (Fig. 20.6e and Table 20.1). These products and their industrialization
dominated the economic cycles until the first half of the twentieth century (Mendes
2003). Carnauba wax was then the main product exported to Europe. It justified
infrastructure investments, such as railway lines and harbour equipment. Parnaíba is
now a commercial reference in fruits production, rice and general trade, all contributing to populational increases that is currently at 170 thousand people (Fig. 20.6)
(Carvalho and Gomes 2006).
Most of the environmental impacts are associated to non-sustainable fisheries
using gillnets of small mesh size (2 cm between knots). These nets catch fish in
young and sub-adult phases, most of them commercially important as lane snapper
Lutjanus synagris, dog snapper L. jocu and common snook Centropomus undecimalis (Table 20.1).
Although shrimp trawlers operate unattended just outside the MPA, they are
affecting fish stocks by capturing several young fishes near the coast (3–4 nautical
miles). Crab fishing remains the main economic activity of the sector, representing
approximately 90% of local landings (Farias et al. 2015). The main fishing pressure
is related to the uçá-crab (Ucides cordatus) stocks, which for decades is caught from
the mangrove forests above their catch limit, with no quota per person or minimum
size and sex control. Uçá-crab produces around 1000 tons per year (Table 20.1).
The rainy season marks the occurrence of megafauna as the marine manatee
Trichechus manatus manatus (Souza 2015) and sea turtles (Silva et al. 2015)
(Table 20.1). The Delta is also inhabited by several species of birds, such as guará
(Eudocimus ruber), whimbrel (Numenius hudsonicus), the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and the magnificent frigate bird (Fregata magnificens) (Campos et al. 2015)
(Table 20.1) part of marine food webs.
Recent anthropogenic impacts at the Parnaíba Delta include the occupation of
the margins of lagoons by wind-energy turbines, which downgrades the landscape;
M. Barletta et al.
August, being responsible for maintain the mesothermal climate gradients. The contact between the intertropical and polar air masses forms the Atlantic Polar Front,
responsible for the rainfall distribution along the year. The annual rainfall in the
region ranges between 1460 and 1820 mm, with 129–144 days of rain. At the estuary itself, these values are between 1000 and 1250 mm (monthly average: 100–
300 mm), concentrated between January and March (Fig. 20.2d) (EPAGRI 2014).
20.3 Ecological Services, Land Use and Anthropogenic
Impacts
20.3.1 Parnaíba River Delta
Parnaíba city is 14 km upstream from the Parnaíba Delta, but urban settlement in the
region accompanied extractive activities of forest products, as maniçoba rubber
(Manihot esculenta), babaçú oil (Orbignya phalerata) and carnaúba wax (Copernicia
prunifera) (Fig. 20.6e and Table 20.1). These products and their industrialization
dominated the economic cycles until the first half of the twentieth century (Mendes
2003). Carnauba wax was then the main product exported to Europe. It justified
infrastructure investments, such as railway lines and harbour equipment. Parnaíba is
now a commercial reference in fruits production, rice and general trade, all contributing to populational increases that is currently at 170 thousand people (Fig. 20.6)
(Carvalho and Gomes 2006).
Most of the environmental impacts are associated to non-sustainable fisheries
using gillnets of small mesh size (2 cm between knots). These nets catch fish in
young and sub-adult phases, most of them commercially important as lane snapper
Lutjanus synagris, dog snapper L. jocu and common snook Centropomus undecimalis (Table 20.1).
Although shrimp trawlers operate unattended just outside the MPA, they are
affecting fish stocks by capturing several young fishes near the coast (3–4 nautical
miles). Crab fishing remains the main economic activity of the sector, representing
approximately 90% of local landings (Farias et al. 2015). The main fishing pressure
is related to the uçá-crab (Ucides cordatus) stocks, which for decades is caught from
the mangrove forests above their catch limit, with no quota per person or minimum
size and sex control. Uçá-crab produces around 1000 tons per year (Table 20.1).
The rainy season marks the occurrence of megafauna as the marine manatee
Trichechus manatus manatus (Souza 2015) and sea turtles (Silva et al. 2015)
(Table 20.1). The Delta is also inhabited by several species of birds, such as guará
(Eudocimus ruber), whimbrel (Numenius hudsonicus), the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and the magnificent frigate bird (Fregata magnificens) (Campos et al. 2015)
(Table 20.1) part of marine food webs.
Recent anthropogenic impacts at the Parnaíba Delta include the occupation of
the margins of lagoons by wind-energy turbines, which downgrades the landscape;
M. Barletta et al.