38
template for predicting change in system behavior.
Which view best describes the system being managed depends at least in part on the focus of the assessment and the goals of management.
2.7 References
Ahl, v.; Allen, T. F. H. 1996. Hierarchy theory: a vision, vocabulary, and epistemology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Allen, T. F. H.; Hoekstra, T. W. 1992. Toward a unified
ecology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Allen, T. F. H.; Starr, T. B. 1982. Hierarchy: perspectives for ecological complexity. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Allen, T. F. H.; O'Neill, R. V; Hoekstra, T. W. 1987. Interlevel relations in ecological research and management: some working principles from hierarchy theory.
J. Appl. Syst. Anal. 14:63-79.
Bak, P.; Chen, K. 1991. Self-organized criticality. Sci.
Amer. 264(1):46-53.
Bak, P.; Sneppen, K. 1993. Punctuated equilibrium and
criticality in a simple model of evolution. Phys. Rev.
Lett. 71 :4083-4086.
Bak, P.; Tang, C.; Wiesenfeld, K. 1988. Self-organized
criticality. Phys. Rev. A 38:364-374.
Botkin, D. B. 1990. Discordant harmonies: a new ecology for the twenty-first century. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
Casdagli, M.; Eubank, S. 1992. Nonlinear modeling and
forecasting. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley.
Costanza, R; Maxwell, T. 1994. Resolution and predictability: an approach to the scaling problem. Landscape Ecol. 9:47-57.
Costanza, R.; Wainger, L.; Folke, C. 1993. Modeling
complex ecological economic systems: toward an evolutionary, dynamic understanding of people and nature. BioScience 43:545-555.
Drossel, B.; Schwab1, F. 1992. Self-organized criticality
in a forest-fire model. Physica A 191:47-50.
Egerton, F. N. 1973. Changing concepts of the balance
of nature. Quart. Rev. BioI. 48:322-350.
Forman, R T. T. 1995. Land mosaics: the ecology of
landscapes and regions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Forman, R T. T.; Godron, M. 1986. Landscape ecology.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Forman, R. T. T.; Moore, P. N. 1992. Theoretical foundations for understanding boundaries in landscape mosaics. In: Hansen, A J.; di Castri, F., eds. Landscape
boundaries: consequences for biotic diversity and ecological flows. New York: Springer-Verlag: 236-258.
Gilpin, M. E. 1979. Spiral chaos in a predator-prey
model. Amer. Naturalist 113:306-308.
Harrison, S.; Stahl, A; Doak, D. 1993. Spatial models
and spotted owls: exploring some biological issues behind recent events. Conserv. BioI. 7:950-953.
Hastings, A; Hom, C.; Ellner, S.; Turchin, P.; Godfray,
A Theoretical Framework for Ecological Assessment
H. C. J. 1993. Chaos in ecology: is mother nature a
strange attractor? Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 24:1-33.
Holling, C. S. 1986. The resilience of terrestrial ecosystems, local surprise and global change. In: Clark, W.
c.; Munn, R E., eds. Sustainable development of the
biosphere. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press: 292-317.
Holling, C. S.; Meffe, G. K. 1996. Command and control and the pathology of natural resource management. Conserv. BioI. 10:328-337.
Johnson, A R. 1996. Spatiotemporal hierarchies in ecological theory and modeling. In: Goodchild, M. F.;
Steyaert, L. T.; Parks, B. 0.; Johnston, C.; Maidment,
D; Crane, M; Glendinning, S., eds. Integrating geographic information systems and environmental modeling: progress and research issues. Ft. Collins, CO:
GIS World: 451-456.
Johnson, A R.; Milne, B. T.; Wiens, J. A 1992. Diffusion in fractal landscapes: simulations and experimental investigation of Tenebrionid beetle movements. Ecology 73:1968-1983.
Kauffman, S. A 1993. The origins of order: self-organization and selection in evolution. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Keitt, T. H.; Marquet, P. A. 1996. The introduced Hawaiian avifauna reconsidered: evidence for self-organized
criticality? J. Theor. BioI. 182:161-167.
Koestler, A 1967. The ghost in the machine. New York:
Macmillan.
Lotka, A J. 1925. Elements of physical biology. New
York: Dover [reprinted in 1956 under the title Elements of mathematical biology].
MacMahon, J. A.; Phillips, D. L.; Robinson, J. V.;
Schimpf, D. J. 1978. Levels of biological organization: an organism-centered approach. BioScience 28:
700-704.
Malamud, B. D.; Turcotte, D. L.; Barton, C. C. 1996.
The 1993 Mississippi River flood: a one hundred or a
one thousand year event? Environ. Eng. Geoscience
2:479-486.
Malamud, B. D.; Morein, G.; Turcotte, D. L. 1998. Forest fires: an example of self-organized critical behavior. Science 281:1840-1842.
Margu1es, C. R; Nicholls, A. 0.; Pressey, R L. 1988.
Selecting networks of reserves to maximize biological diversity. BioI. Conserv. 43:63-67.
May, R M. 1974. Biological populations with nonoverlapping generations: stable points, stable cycles and
chaos. Science 186:645-647.
May, R M.; Oster, G. F. 1976. Bifurcations and dynamic
complexity in simple ecological models. Amer. Naturalist 110:573-599.
Naveh, Z. 1995. Interactions of landscapes and cultures.
Landscape Urban Plan. 32:43-54.
Nicholls, A 0.; Margules, C. R 1993. An upgraded reserve selection procedure. Bioi. Conserv. 64:165-169.
O'Neill, R V.; DeAngelis, D. L.; Waide, J. B.; Allen,
T. F. H. 1986. A hierarchical concept of ecosystems.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
O'Neill, R. V; Johnson, A R; King, A. W. 1989. A hi-
template for predicting change in system behavior.
Which view best describes the system being managed depends at least in part on the focus of the assessment and the goals of management.
2.7 References
Ahl, v.; Allen, T. F. H. 1996. Hierarchy theory: a vision, vocabulary, and epistemology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Allen, T. F. H.; Hoekstra, T. W. 1992. Toward a unified
ecology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Allen, T. F. H.; Starr, T. B. 1982. Hierarchy: perspectives for ecological complexity. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Allen, T. F. H.; O'Neill, R. V; Hoekstra, T. W. 1987. Interlevel relations in ecological research and management: some working principles from hierarchy theory.
J. Appl. Syst. Anal. 14:63-79.
Bak, P.; Chen, K. 1991. Self-organized criticality. Sci.
Amer. 264(1):46-53.
Bak, P.; Sneppen, K. 1993. Punctuated equilibrium and
criticality in a simple model of evolution. Phys. Rev.
Lett. 71 :4083-4086.
Bak, P.; Tang, C.; Wiesenfeld, K. 1988. Self-organized
criticality. Phys. Rev. A 38:364-374.
Botkin, D. B. 1990. Discordant harmonies: a new ecology for the twenty-first century. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
Casdagli, M.; Eubank, S. 1992. Nonlinear modeling and
forecasting. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley.
Costanza, R; Maxwell, T. 1994. Resolution and predictability: an approach to the scaling problem. Landscape Ecol. 9:47-57.
Costanza, R.; Wainger, L.; Folke, C. 1993. Modeling
complex ecological economic systems: toward an evolutionary, dynamic understanding of people and nature. BioScience 43:545-555.
Drossel, B.; Schwab1, F. 1992. Self-organized criticality
in a forest-fire model. Physica A 191:47-50.
Egerton, F. N. 1973. Changing concepts of the balance
of nature. Quart. Rev. BioI. 48:322-350.
Forman, R T. T. 1995. Land mosaics: the ecology of
landscapes and regions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Forman, R T. T.; Godron, M. 1986. Landscape ecology.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Forman, R. T. T.; Moore, P. N. 1992. Theoretical foundations for understanding boundaries in landscape mosaics. In: Hansen, A J.; di Castri, F., eds. Landscape
boundaries: consequences for biotic diversity and ecological flows. New York: Springer-Verlag: 236-258.
Gilpin, M. E. 1979. Spiral chaos in a predator-prey
model. Amer. Naturalist 113:306-308.
Harrison, S.; Stahl, A; Doak, D. 1993. Spatial models
and spotted owls: exploring some biological issues behind recent events. Conserv. BioI. 7:950-953.
Hastings, A; Hom, C.; Ellner, S.; Turchin, P.; Godfray,
A Theoretical Framework for Ecological Assessment
H. C. J. 1993. Chaos in ecology: is mother nature a
strange attractor? Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 24:1-33.
Holling, C. S. 1986. The resilience of terrestrial ecosystems, local surprise and global change. In: Clark, W.
c.; Munn, R E., eds. Sustainable development of the
biosphere. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press: 292-317.
Holling, C. S.; Meffe, G. K. 1996. Command and control and the pathology of natural resource management. Conserv. BioI. 10:328-337.
Johnson, A R. 1996. Spatiotemporal hierarchies in ecological theory and modeling. In: Goodchild, M. F.;
Steyaert, L. T.; Parks, B. 0.; Johnston, C.; Maidment,
D; Crane, M; Glendinning, S., eds. Integrating geographic information systems and environmental modeling: progress and research issues. Ft. Collins, CO:
GIS World: 451-456.
Johnson, A R.; Milne, B. T.; Wiens, J. A 1992. Diffusion in fractal landscapes: simulations and experimental investigation of Tenebrionid beetle movements. Ecology 73:1968-1983.
Kauffman, S. A 1993. The origins of order: self-organization and selection in evolution. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Keitt, T. H.; Marquet, P. A. 1996. The introduced Hawaiian avifauna reconsidered: evidence for self-organized
criticality? J. Theor. BioI. 182:161-167.
Koestler, A 1967. The ghost in the machine. New York:
Macmillan.
Lotka, A J. 1925. Elements of physical biology. New
York: Dover [reprinted in 1956 under the title Elements of mathematical biology].
MacMahon, J. A.; Phillips, D. L.; Robinson, J. V.;
Schimpf, D. J. 1978. Levels of biological organization: an organism-centered approach. BioScience 28:
700-704.
Malamud, B. D.; Turcotte, D. L.; Barton, C. C. 1996.
The 1993 Mississippi River flood: a one hundred or a
one thousand year event? Environ. Eng. Geoscience
2:479-486.
Malamud, B. D.; Morein, G.; Turcotte, D. L. 1998. Forest fires: an example of self-organized critical behavior. Science 281:1840-1842.
Margu1es, C. R; Nicholls, A. 0.; Pressey, R L. 1988.
Selecting networks of reserves to maximize biological diversity. BioI. Conserv. 43:63-67.
May, R M. 1974. Biological populations with nonoverlapping generations: stable points, stable cycles and
chaos. Science 186:645-647.
May, R M.; Oster, G. F. 1976. Bifurcations and dynamic
complexity in simple ecological models. Amer. Naturalist 110:573-599.
Naveh, Z. 1995. Interactions of landscapes and cultures.
Landscape Urban Plan. 32:43-54.
Nicholls, A 0.; Margules, C. R 1993. An upgraded reserve selection procedure. Bioi. Conserv. 64:165-169.
O'Neill, R V.; DeAngelis, D. L.; Waide, J. B.; Allen,
T. F. H. 1986. A hierarchical concept of ecosystems.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
O'Neill, R. V; Johnson, A R; King, A. W. 1989. A hi-