27.3 Intangible Elements
27.2.5 Key Commercial and
Industrial Concerns
To understand the functioning of an ecosystem and
changes over time, it is important to understand the
commercial or industrial activities underway in the
ecosystem. For example, extractive industries like
logging, oil and gas extraction, mineral mining, and
peat mining all occur because of the economic
value placed on the resources. An ecosystem can
be dramatically altered when some of its elements
are altered or removed, interrupting normal hydrological and biogeochemical functioning. Industries
often metabolize raw natural resources and generate waste products in producing goods and services.
Raw resource requirements might be met from biological, geological, hydrological, or atmospheric
sources. Wastes can take the form of gaseous, liquid, and/or solid waste, which enters the atmosphere, hydrological system, or landfills. Although
residences metabolize raw resources to create
waste, the types of industries in an area will tend
to have a greater influence on what resources are
extracted and what wastes are produced.
Data on industrial activities are often collected
through the use of agriCUltural and industrial censuses. Data may be in the form of materials ingested
or wastes produced, but more often this information must be inferred from information on the dollar value or quantity produced or people employed
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992b). Although this
information can be misleading if not used with care,
it can provide a representation of the industrial activities in a region and the potential impact on the
ecosystem. This information is typically, but not always, only available at an aggregate level (e.g., by
county) and not for individual producers.
27.3 Intangible Elements
A number of intangible elements, although they do
not necessarily directly affect ecosystem functioning, can have very obvious indirect influences. Intangible elements provide the framework for
ecosystem functioning under human management.
The geographies of land tenure, administration,
use, and regulation can all have noticeable impacts
on the structure and functioning of an ecosystem.
The social, cultural, economic, historical, and institutional setting of an ecosystem tends to drive
the human activities in the ecosystem (see Chapter
28). To be complete, an ecological assessment
should include a characterization of these jurisdictional patterns.
409
The political, administrative, ownership, and
other boundaries can be viewed as analogous to the
ecological boundaries dividing various subdivisions within an ecosystem. Like ecological boundaries, the intangible social boundaries are porous to
the movement of some materials and information
and act as effective barriers to others. Just as a watershed boundary defines an area that is distinct hydrologically, but not necessarily meteorologically
or biogeochemically distinct, administrative boundaries define areas with homogeneous legal characteristics that may have little to do with spatial variation in demographic or economic characteristics.
Just as an animal may travel farther to access a
higher-quality food source, people often travel
greater distances to access employment opportunities where choices, pay, or benefits are better.
When we view humans as a critical part of an
ecosystem, information on these intangible elements is critical to understanding the societal components of ecosystems.
27.3.1 Political and Census Boundaries
It is helpful to have the boundaries for all the administrative units that have some regulatory control over the ecosystem. Political boundaries affecting ecosystem management, and therefore
ecosystem function, may be present at a number of
scales (e.g., national, subnational). In the United
States it may be useful to know the boundaries of
states, counties, townships or minor civil divisions,
legislative districts, school districts, census districts, and other agency-specific management districts. Figure 27.1 displays three levels in the administrative hierarchy within the state of Michigan.
Minor civil divisions (MCDs) in Michigan correspond to townships and incorporated cities, towns,
and villages. The necessity of obtaining such
boundary information arises from both the policy
and management relevance of these boundaries on
the ground and the availability of socioeconomic
and environmental data summarized and available
by these spatial units. For example, the data on the
U.S. censuses of population, manufactures, business, and agriculture are all available by these units.
Many examples exist of very real landscape expressions of imaginary lines separating intangible
entities (e.g., national or other jurisdictional boundaries). The landscape differences result from different policies, culture, history, institutions, or economic situations on either side of the boundaries.
For example, usage of a forest or grassland may be
very intense on one side of a national boundary because of economic pressure or fewer regulations,
27.2.5 Key Commercial and
Industrial Concerns
To understand the functioning of an ecosystem and
changes over time, it is important to understand the
commercial or industrial activities underway in the
ecosystem. For example, extractive industries like
logging, oil and gas extraction, mineral mining, and
peat mining all occur because of the economic
value placed on the resources. An ecosystem can
be dramatically altered when some of its elements
are altered or removed, interrupting normal hydrological and biogeochemical functioning. Industries
often metabolize raw natural resources and generate waste products in producing goods and services.
Raw resource requirements might be met from biological, geological, hydrological, or atmospheric
sources. Wastes can take the form of gaseous, liquid, and/or solid waste, which enters the atmosphere, hydrological system, or landfills. Although
residences metabolize raw resources to create
waste, the types of industries in an area will tend
to have a greater influence on what resources are
extracted and what wastes are produced.
Data on industrial activities are often collected
through the use of agriCUltural and industrial censuses. Data may be in the form of materials ingested
or wastes produced, but more often this information must be inferred from information on the dollar value or quantity produced or people employed
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992b). Although this
information can be misleading if not used with care,
it can provide a representation of the industrial activities in a region and the potential impact on the
ecosystem. This information is typically, but not always, only available at an aggregate level (e.g., by
county) and not for individual producers.
27.3 Intangible Elements
A number of intangible elements, although they do
not necessarily directly affect ecosystem functioning, can have very obvious indirect influences. Intangible elements provide the framework for
ecosystem functioning under human management.
The geographies of land tenure, administration,
use, and regulation can all have noticeable impacts
on the structure and functioning of an ecosystem.
The social, cultural, economic, historical, and institutional setting of an ecosystem tends to drive
the human activities in the ecosystem (see Chapter
28). To be complete, an ecological assessment
should include a characterization of these jurisdictional patterns.
409
The political, administrative, ownership, and
other boundaries can be viewed as analogous to the
ecological boundaries dividing various subdivisions within an ecosystem. Like ecological boundaries, the intangible social boundaries are porous to
the movement of some materials and information
and act as effective barriers to others. Just as a watershed boundary defines an area that is distinct hydrologically, but not necessarily meteorologically
or biogeochemically distinct, administrative boundaries define areas with homogeneous legal characteristics that may have little to do with spatial variation in demographic or economic characteristics.
Just as an animal may travel farther to access a
higher-quality food source, people often travel
greater distances to access employment opportunities where choices, pay, or benefits are better.
When we view humans as a critical part of an
ecosystem, information on these intangible elements is critical to understanding the societal components of ecosystems.
27.3.1 Political and Census Boundaries
It is helpful to have the boundaries for all the administrative units that have some regulatory control over the ecosystem. Political boundaries affecting ecosystem management, and therefore
ecosystem function, may be present at a number of
scales (e.g., national, subnational). In the United
States it may be useful to know the boundaries of
states, counties, townships or minor civil divisions,
legislative districts, school districts, census districts, and other agency-specific management districts. Figure 27.1 displays three levels in the administrative hierarchy within the state of Michigan.
Minor civil divisions (MCDs) in Michigan correspond to townships and incorporated cities, towns,
and villages. The necessity of obtaining such
boundary information arises from both the policy
and management relevance of these boundaries on
the ground and the availability of socioeconomic
and environmental data summarized and available
by these spatial units. For example, the data on the
U.S. censuses of population, manufactures, business, and agriculture are all available by these units.
Many examples exist of very real landscape expressions of imaginary lines separating intangible
entities (e.g., national or other jurisdictional boundaries). The landscape differences result from different policies, culture, history, institutions, or economic situations on either side of the boundaries.
For example, usage of a forest or grassland may be
very intense on one side of a national boundary because of economic pressure or fewer regulations,