350
of the ecosystem or on other, perhaps unmeasured,
processes that may be occurring simultaneously.
Because of possibly immeasurable long-term
ecosystem variability, climate change, system inertia or synergistic effects, and undocumented human influence, a comprehensive documentation of
natural disturbance regimes may be an unattainable
goal in many ecosystems. Also, even when documented, such disturbance regimes may not be stable. While such assessments must be incorporated
into restoration and management programs, there
must always be an allowance for unanticipated effects resulting from the application of incomplete
knowledge, an approach that has been termed adaptive management (see Chapter 4). Collecting new
observations and testing prior assumptions should
be perceived as an opportunity to add to our body
of knowledge about dynamic interactions.
23.7 References
Baker, W. L. 1989. A review of models of landscape
change. Landscape Ecol. 2(2):111-133.
Baker, W. L. 1992a. The landscape ecology of large disturbances in the design and management of nature reserves. Landscape Ecol. 7(3):181-194.
Baker, W. L. 1992b. Effects of settlement and fire suppression on landscape structure. Ecology 73: 18791887.
Baker, W. L. 1994. Restoration oflandscape structure altered by fire suppression. Conserv. Bioi. 8:763-769.
Barnes, W. 1. 1997. Vegetation dynamics on the flood
plain of the lower Chippewa River in Wisconsin. 1.
Torrey Bot. Soc. 124(2):189-197.
Beven, K. J.; Kirkby, M. J. 1979. A physically based,
variable contributing area model of basin hydrology.
Hydrolog. Sci. Bull. 24:43-69.
Billings, W. D. 1990. Bromus tectorum, a biotic cause
of ecosystem impoverishment in the Great Basin. In:
Woodwell, G. M., ed. The Eanh in transition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 301-322.
Bonan, G. B. 1995. Land-atmosphere interactions forclimate system models: coupling biophysical, biogeochemical, and ecosystem dynamical processes. Remote
Sens. Environ. 51:57-73.
Bourgeron, P. S.; Jensen, M. E. 1994. An overview of
ecological principles for ecosystem management. In:
Jensen, M. E.; Bourgeron, P. S., tech eds. Vo!' II:
Ecosystem management: principles and applications.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-318. Portland, OR: U.S.
Dept. Agric., For. Serv., Pacific Northwest Res. Sta.:
45-57.
Carr, K. 1994. The biological and conservation data
(BCD) system and the natural heritage network. Prepared for the 1994 Computerworld Smithsonian
Awards Program. The Nature Conservancy; available
on the Internet (http://www.heritage.tnc.orglnhp/award.
html#REF).
Dynamic Terrestrial Ecosystem Patterns and Processes
Claussen, M.; Esch, M. 1994. Biomes computed from
simulated c1imatologies. Clim. Dynam. 9:235-243.
Cogan, C. 1994. Terrestrial and aquatic Gap Analysis
summary of national data resources and identification
of cooperators. In: Scott, J. M.; Jennings, M. D., eds.
A handbook for gap analysis. Moscow, ID: Idaho
Coop. Fish and Wildlife Res. Unit, University of
Idaho: 4.1-4.13.
Dale, B. H.; Rauscher, H. M. 1994. Assessing impacts
of climate change on forests: the state of biological
modeling. Climatic Change 28:65-90.
Davis, F. W.; Burrows, D. A. 1994. Spatial simulation
of fire regime in Mediterranean-climate landscapes.
In: Moreno, J. M.; Oechel, W. c., eds. The role offire
in Mediterranean-type communities. New York:
Springer-Verlag: 117-139.
Davis, F. W.; Goetz, S. 1990. Modeling vegetation pattern using digital terrain data. Landscape Ecol. 4:
69-80.
DeAngelis, D. L.; White, P. S. 1994. Ecosystems as products of spatially and temporally varying driving forces,
ecological processes, and landscapes-a theoretical
perspective. In: Davis, S. M.; Ogden, J. c., eds. Everglades: the ecosystem and its restoration. Delray
Beach, FL: St. Lucia Press: 9-28.
Drayton, R. S.; Wilde, B. M.; Harris, J. H. K. 1992. Geographical information system approach to distributed
modeling. Hydro!. Process. 6:361-368.
Everitt, B. L. 1968. Use of the cottonwood in an investigation of the recent history of a floodplain. Amer. J.
Sci. 266:417-429.
Forman, R. T. 1995. Land mosaics: the ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Goodchild, M. F. 1994. Integrating GIS and remote sensing for vegetation analysis and modeling: methodological issues. J. Veg. Sci. 5:615-626.
Goodchild, M. F.; Parks, B. 0.; Steyaert, L. T. 1993. Environmental modeling with GIS. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Gregory, S. V.; Swanson, F. J.; McKee, W. A.; Cummins, K. W. 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian zones. BioScience 41(8):540-551.
Gribko, L. S.; Liebhold, A. M.; Hohn, M. E. 1995. Model
to predict gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) defoliation using kriging and logistic regression. Environ. Entomol. 24(3):529-537.
Haines-Young, R.; Green, D. R.; Cousins, S. 1993. Landscape ecology and geographic information systems.
London and New York: Taylor and Francis.
Harmon, M. E. 1981. Fire history of Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 1940-1979. U.S. Dept. Interior,
Nat!. Park Serv., Southeast Region. Off., Uplands
Field Res. Lab, ResearchlResource Manag. Rep. No.
46.
Harmon, M. E.; Bratton, S. P.; White, P. S. 1983. Disturbance and vegetation response in relation to environmental gradients in the Great Smoky Mountains.
Vegetatio 55:129-139.
Kessell, S. R. 1979. Gradient modeling: resource and
fire management. New York: Springer-Verlag.
of the ecosystem or on other, perhaps unmeasured,
processes that may be occurring simultaneously.
Because of possibly immeasurable long-term
ecosystem variability, climate change, system inertia or synergistic effects, and undocumented human influence, a comprehensive documentation of
natural disturbance regimes may be an unattainable
goal in many ecosystems. Also, even when documented, such disturbance regimes may not be stable. While such assessments must be incorporated
into restoration and management programs, there
must always be an allowance for unanticipated effects resulting from the application of incomplete
knowledge, an approach that has been termed adaptive management (see Chapter 4). Collecting new
observations and testing prior assumptions should
be perceived as an opportunity to add to our body
of knowledge about dynamic interactions.
23.7 References
Baker, W. L. 1989. A review of models of landscape
change. Landscape Ecol. 2(2):111-133.
Baker, W. L. 1992a. The landscape ecology of large disturbances in the design and management of nature reserves. Landscape Ecol. 7(3):181-194.
Baker, W. L. 1992b. Effects of settlement and fire suppression on landscape structure. Ecology 73: 18791887.
Baker, W. L. 1994. Restoration oflandscape structure altered by fire suppression. Conserv. Bioi. 8:763-769.
Barnes, W. 1. 1997. Vegetation dynamics on the flood
plain of the lower Chippewa River in Wisconsin. 1.
Torrey Bot. Soc. 124(2):189-197.
Beven, K. J.; Kirkby, M. J. 1979. A physically based,
variable contributing area model of basin hydrology.
Hydrolog. Sci. Bull. 24:43-69.
Billings, W. D. 1990. Bromus tectorum, a biotic cause
of ecosystem impoverishment in the Great Basin. In:
Woodwell, G. M., ed. The Eanh in transition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 301-322.
Bonan, G. B. 1995. Land-atmosphere interactions forclimate system models: coupling biophysical, biogeochemical, and ecosystem dynamical processes. Remote
Sens. Environ. 51:57-73.
Bourgeron, P. S.; Jensen, M. E. 1994. An overview of
ecological principles for ecosystem management. In:
Jensen, M. E.; Bourgeron, P. S., tech eds. Vo!' II:
Ecosystem management: principles and applications.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-318. Portland, OR: U.S.
Dept. Agric., For. Serv., Pacific Northwest Res. Sta.:
45-57.
Carr, K. 1994. The biological and conservation data
(BCD) system and the natural heritage network. Prepared for the 1994 Computerworld Smithsonian
Awards Program. The Nature Conservancy; available
on the Internet (http://www.heritage.tnc.orglnhp/award.
html#REF).
Dynamic Terrestrial Ecosystem Patterns and Processes
Claussen, M.; Esch, M. 1994. Biomes computed from
simulated c1imatologies. Clim. Dynam. 9:235-243.
Cogan, C. 1994. Terrestrial and aquatic Gap Analysis
summary of national data resources and identification
of cooperators. In: Scott, J. M.; Jennings, M. D., eds.
A handbook for gap analysis. Moscow, ID: Idaho
Coop. Fish and Wildlife Res. Unit, University of
Idaho: 4.1-4.13.
Dale, B. H.; Rauscher, H. M. 1994. Assessing impacts
of climate change on forests: the state of biological
modeling. Climatic Change 28:65-90.
Davis, F. W.; Burrows, D. A. 1994. Spatial simulation
of fire regime in Mediterranean-climate landscapes.
In: Moreno, J. M.; Oechel, W. c., eds. The role offire
in Mediterranean-type communities. New York:
Springer-Verlag: 117-139.
Davis, F. W.; Goetz, S. 1990. Modeling vegetation pattern using digital terrain data. Landscape Ecol. 4:
69-80.
DeAngelis, D. L.; White, P. S. 1994. Ecosystems as products of spatially and temporally varying driving forces,
ecological processes, and landscapes-a theoretical
perspective. In: Davis, S. M.; Ogden, J. c., eds. Everglades: the ecosystem and its restoration. Delray
Beach, FL: St. Lucia Press: 9-28.
Drayton, R. S.; Wilde, B. M.; Harris, J. H. K. 1992. Geographical information system approach to distributed
modeling. Hydro!. Process. 6:361-368.
Everitt, B. L. 1968. Use of the cottonwood in an investigation of the recent history of a floodplain. Amer. J.
Sci. 266:417-429.
Forman, R. T. 1995. Land mosaics: the ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Goodchild, M. F. 1994. Integrating GIS and remote sensing for vegetation analysis and modeling: methodological issues. J. Veg. Sci. 5:615-626.
Goodchild, M. F.; Parks, B. 0.; Steyaert, L. T. 1993. Environmental modeling with GIS. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Gregory, S. V.; Swanson, F. J.; McKee, W. A.; Cummins, K. W. 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian zones. BioScience 41(8):540-551.
Gribko, L. S.; Liebhold, A. M.; Hohn, M. E. 1995. Model
to predict gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) defoliation using kriging and logistic regression. Environ. Entomol. 24(3):529-537.
Haines-Young, R.; Green, D. R.; Cousins, S. 1993. Landscape ecology and geographic information systems.
London and New York: Taylor and Francis.
Harmon, M. E. 1981. Fire history of Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 1940-1979. U.S. Dept. Interior,
Nat!. Park Serv., Southeast Region. Off., Uplands
Field Res. Lab, ResearchlResource Manag. Rep. No.
46.
Harmon, M. E.; Bratton, S. P.; White, P. S. 1983. Disturbance and vegetation response in relation to environmental gradients in the Great Smoky Mountains.
Vegetatio 55:129-139.
Kessell, S. R. 1979. Gradient modeling: resource and
fire management. New York: Springer-Verlag.