23.7 References
Knight, D. H. 1987.Parasites, lightning, and the vegetative mosaic in wilderness landscapes. In: Turner, M.
G., ed. Landscape heterogeneity and disturbance.
New York: Springer-Verlag: 59-83.
Lang, G. E. 1985. Forest turnover and the dynamics of
bole wood litter in subalpine balsam fir forest. Can. 1.
For. Res. 15:262-268.
Levin, S. A. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in
ecology. Ecology 73(6):1943-1967.
Lieth, H. 1975. Modeling the primary productivity of the
world. In: Lieth, H.; Whitaker, R.H., eds. Primary productivity of the biosphere. New York: SpringerVerlag: 237-263.
Moore, I. D.; Grayson, R. B.; Ladson, A. R. 1991. Digital terrain modeling: a review of hydrological, geomorphological, and biological applications. Hydrol.
Process. 5:3-30.
Morgan, P.; Aplet, G. H.; Haufler, J. B.; Humphries,
H. c.; Moore, M. M.; Wilson, W. D. 1994. Historical
range of variability: a useful tool for evaluating
ecosystem change. 1. Sustain. For. 2(1/2):87-111.
Noss, R. F. 1989. Longleaf pine and wiregrass: keystone
components of an endangered ecosystem. Nat. Areas
1. 9(4):211-213.
Parton, W. J.; Stewart, J. W. B.; Cole, C. V. 1988. Dynamics of C, N, P, and S in grassland soils: a model.
Biogeochemistry 5: 109-131.
Pyle, C. 1986. The use of vegetation disturbance history
source materials: three examples from Great Smoky
Mountains National Park. In: Bratton, S., ed. Vegetation change and historic landscape management: proceedings of the conference on science in the National
Parks; July 13-18, 1986, Colorado State University:
76-94.
Reed, R. A.; Peet, R. K.; Palmer, M. W.; White, P. S.
1993. Scale dependence of vegetation-environment
correlations: a case study of a North Carolina piedmont woodland. 1. Veg. Sci. 4:329-340.
Rothermel, R. C. 1972. A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildland fuels. Ogden, UT: U.S.
Dept. Agric., For. Serv., Res. Paper INT-115. Intermountain For. and Range Exp. Sta.
Runkle, J. R. 1985. Disturbance regimes in temperate
forests. In: Pickett, S. T. A.; White, P.S., eds. The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. New
York: Academic Press: 17-34.
Running, S. W.; Coughlan, J. C. 1988. A general model
of forest ecosystem processes for regional application.
I. hydrologic balance, canopy gas exchange and primary production processes. Eco!. Mode!' 42:125-154.
Shugart, H. H. 1984. A theory offorest dynamics. New
York: Springer-Verlag.
Smith, T.; Urban, D. L. 1988. Scale and resolution of
forest structural pattern. Vegetatio 74:143-150.
351
Sousa, W. P. 1985. Disturbance and patch dynamics on
rocky intertidal shores. In: Pickett, S. T. A.; White,
P. S., eds. The ecology of natural disturbance and
patch dynamics. New York: Academic Press:
101-124.
Swanson, F. J.; Kratz, T. K.; Caine, N.; Woodmansee,
R. G. 1988. Landform effects on ecosystem patterns
and processes. BioScience 38(2):92-98.
Turner, M. G.; O'Neill, R. V.; Gardner, R. H.; Milne,
B. T. 1989. Effects of changing spatial scale on the
analysis of landscape pattern. Landscape Ecol. 3(3/4):
153-162.
Urban, D. L.; Shugart, H. H. 1992. Individual-based
models of forest succession. In: Glenn-Lewin, D. c.;
Peet, R. K.; Veblen, T. T., eds. Plant succession: theory and prediction. London: Chapman & Hall:
249-290.
Urban, D. L.; O'Neill, R. V.; Shugart, H. H. 1987. Landscape ecology: a hierarchical perspective can help scientists understand spatial patterns. BioScience 37:
119-127.
Vasconcelos, M. J.; Pereira, J. M. c.; Zeigler, B. P. 1994.
Simulation of fire growth in mountain environments.
In: Price, M. F.; Heywood, D. I., eds. Mountain environments and geographic information systems. Bristol, PA: Taylor and Francis: 167-185.
Ware, S.; Frost, c.; Doerr, P. D. 1993. Southern mixed
hardwood forest: the former longleaf pine forest. In:
Martin, W. H.; Boyce, S. G.; Echternacht, A. c., eds.
Biodiversity of the southeastern United States: lowland terrestrial communities. New York: John Wiley
& Sons: 447-493.
White, P. S. 1987. Natural disturbance, patch dynamics,
and landscape pattern in natural areas. Nat. Areas 1.
7(1):14-22.
White. P. S.; Pickett, S. T. A. 1985. Natural disturbance
and patch dynamics, an introduction. In: Pickett,
S. T. A.; White, P. S., eds. The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. New York: Academic
Press: 3-13.
White, P. S.; Walker, J. L. 1997. Approximating nature's
variation: selecting and using reference information in
restoration ecology. Restor. Ecol. 5:338-349.
White, P. S.; Harrod, J.; Romme, W.; Betancourt, J.
1999. The role of disturbance and temporal dynamics.
In: Szaro, R. C.; Johnson, N. C.; Sexton, W. T.; MaIk,
A. J., eds. Ecological Stewardship. Oxford: Elsevier
Science. 2:281-312.
Whittaker, R. H. 1956. Vegetation of the Great Smoky
Mountains. Eco!. Monogr. 26:1-80.
Wiens, J. A. 1989. Spatial scaling in ecology. Ecology
3:385-397.
Woods, F. W.; Shanks, R. E. 1959. Natural replacement
of chestnut by other species in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Ecology 40:349-361.
Knight, D. H. 1987.Parasites, lightning, and the vegetative mosaic in wilderness landscapes. In: Turner, M.
G., ed. Landscape heterogeneity and disturbance.
New York: Springer-Verlag: 59-83.
Lang, G. E. 1985. Forest turnover and the dynamics of
bole wood litter in subalpine balsam fir forest. Can. 1.
For. Res. 15:262-268.
Levin, S. A. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in
ecology. Ecology 73(6):1943-1967.
Lieth, H. 1975. Modeling the primary productivity of the
world. In: Lieth, H.; Whitaker, R.H., eds. Primary productivity of the biosphere. New York: SpringerVerlag: 237-263.
Moore, I. D.; Grayson, R. B.; Ladson, A. R. 1991. Digital terrain modeling: a review of hydrological, geomorphological, and biological applications. Hydrol.
Process. 5:3-30.
Morgan, P.; Aplet, G. H.; Haufler, J. B.; Humphries,
H. c.; Moore, M. M.; Wilson, W. D. 1994. Historical
range of variability: a useful tool for evaluating
ecosystem change. 1. Sustain. For. 2(1/2):87-111.
Noss, R. F. 1989. Longleaf pine and wiregrass: keystone
components of an endangered ecosystem. Nat. Areas
1. 9(4):211-213.
Parton, W. J.; Stewart, J. W. B.; Cole, C. V. 1988. Dynamics of C, N, P, and S in grassland soils: a model.
Biogeochemistry 5: 109-131.
Pyle, C. 1986. The use of vegetation disturbance history
source materials: three examples from Great Smoky
Mountains National Park. In: Bratton, S., ed. Vegetation change and historic landscape management: proceedings of the conference on science in the National
Parks; July 13-18, 1986, Colorado State University:
76-94.
Reed, R. A.; Peet, R. K.; Palmer, M. W.; White, P. S.
1993. Scale dependence of vegetation-environment
correlations: a case study of a North Carolina piedmont woodland. 1. Veg. Sci. 4:329-340.
Rothermel, R. C. 1972. A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildland fuels. Ogden, UT: U.S.
Dept. Agric., For. Serv., Res. Paper INT-115. Intermountain For. and Range Exp. Sta.
Runkle, J. R. 1985. Disturbance regimes in temperate
forests. In: Pickett, S. T. A.; White, P.S., eds. The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. New
York: Academic Press: 17-34.
Running, S. W.; Coughlan, J. C. 1988. A general model
of forest ecosystem processes for regional application.
I. hydrologic balance, canopy gas exchange and primary production processes. Eco!. Mode!' 42:125-154.
Shugart, H. H. 1984. A theory offorest dynamics. New
York: Springer-Verlag.
Smith, T.; Urban, D. L. 1988. Scale and resolution of
forest structural pattern. Vegetatio 74:143-150.
351
Sousa, W. P. 1985. Disturbance and patch dynamics on
rocky intertidal shores. In: Pickett, S. T. A.; White,
P. S., eds. The ecology of natural disturbance and
patch dynamics. New York: Academic Press:
101-124.
Swanson, F. J.; Kratz, T. K.; Caine, N.; Woodmansee,
R. G. 1988. Landform effects on ecosystem patterns
and processes. BioScience 38(2):92-98.
Turner, M. G.; O'Neill, R. V.; Gardner, R. H.; Milne,
B. T. 1989. Effects of changing spatial scale on the
analysis of landscape pattern. Landscape Ecol. 3(3/4):
153-162.
Urban, D. L.; Shugart, H. H. 1992. Individual-based
models of forest succession. In: Glenn-Lewin, D. c.;
Peet, R. K.; Veblen, T. T., eds. Plant succession: theory and prediction. London: Chapman & Hall:
249-290.
Urban, D. L.; O'Neill, R. V.; Shugart, H. H. 1987. Landscape ecology: a hierarchical perspective can help scientists understand spatial patterns. BioScience 37:
119-127.
Vasconcelos, M. J.; Pereira, J. M. c.; Zeigler, B. P. 1994.
Simulation of fire growth in mountain environments.
In: Price, M. F.; Heywood, D. I., eds. Mountain environments and geographic information systems. Bristol, PA: Taylor and Francis: 167-185.
Ware, S.; Frost, c.; Doerr, P. D. 1993. Southern mixed
hardwood forest: the former longleaf pine forest. In:
Martin, W. H.; Boyce, S. G.; Echternacht, A. c., eds.
Biodiversity of the southeastern United States: lowland terrestrial communities. New York: John Wiley
& Sons: 447-493.
White, P. S. 1987. Natural disturbance, patch dynamics,
and landscape pattern in natural areas. Nat. Areas 1.
7(1):14-22.
White. P. S.; Pickett, S. T. A. 1985. Natural disturbance
and patch dynamics, an introduction. In: Pickett,
S. T. A.; White, P. S., eds. The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. New York: Academic
Press: 3-13.
White, P. S.; Walker, J. L. 1997. Approximating nature's
variation: selecting and using reference information in
restoration ecology. Restor. Ecol. 5:338-349.
White, P. S.; Harrod, J.; Romme, W.; Betancourt, J.
1999. The role of disturbance and temporal dynamics.
In: Szaro, R. C.; Johnson, N. C.; Sexton, W. T.; MaIk,
A. J., eds. Ecological Stewardship. Oxford: Elsevier
Science. 2:281-312.
Whittaker, R. H. 1956. Vegetation of the Great Smoky
Mountains. Eco!. Monogr. 26:1-80.
Wiens, J. A. 1989. Spatial scaling in ecology. Ecology
3:385-397.
Woods, F. W.; Shanks, R. E. 1959. Natural replacement
of chestnut by other species in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Ecology 40:349-361.