running models in a common environment may be the most effective way
to elucidate their behavior (e.g., Dale and Swartzman 1984; Rose et al.
1991). Of course, obtaining such a serious and credible review can be
quite time consuming and expensive. A related issue is the absence of
any formalized way to peer review models and of standardized ways to
report models, how they were built, the assumptions made, etc. (Aber
1997). Finally, the awe with which some model results are accepted is
inappropriate. All models should be carefully evaluated and their assumptions, uncertainties, and sensitivities fully explained in the context of the
application.
6.3 Barriers to Specific Players in the
Decision-Making Process
There are barriers to the use of ecological models that are specific to the
players that are a part of decision making. As mentioned earlier, one of the
key questions involved in developing a model is deciding who the participants are. In many situations, the key participants are modelers who typically have a science background; managers who have a science, engineering,
or a policy background; and stakeholders who have a diversity of backgrounds but who almost always have a passion for the situation (Figure 6.2).
The experience of modelers has two implications. First, the science culture
exerts great pressure to publish new findings. This expectation may produce
a desire to develop a new model or to use a model in a new way so that the
results are worthy of publication. However, often it is the adoption of an
existing model with or without minor modifications that is most useful for
the situation. Second, science often focuses within a discipline rather than
being cross-disciplinary. This narrow focus becomes an issue in developing
models for managing environmental resources because, often, much can be
learned from crossing disciplines. For example, McMahon et al. (2001)
report on developments in network analysis that have built upon interdisciplinary approaches. They find that social network analysis is similar to
the analysis of trophic structure in ecological communities and of energy
flow and nutrient transfer because both deal with the problem of how
to conceptualize and test interactions within complex systems. Also, it may
be that the ecological applications can benefit from the social-networkanalysis applications.
The barriers for managers largely relate to the background of that
particular manager and the fact that decisions need to be made in a timely
manner. Managers typically are not familiar with the terminology and
approach adopted by modelers. This lack of background applies to the
particular situation as well as to modeling language, such as uncertainty,
validation, scenario analysis, etc. Most models do not produce a single
answer, yet this is exactly what the resource manager is seeking. Thus,
6. Barriers to the Use of Ecological Models in Decision Making
115
to elucidate their behavior (e.g., Dale and Swartzman 1984; Rose et al.
1991). Of course, obtaining such a serious and credible review can be
quite time consuming and expensive. A related issue is the absence of
any formalized way to peer review models and of standardized ways to
report models, how they were built, the assumptions made, etc. (Aber
1997). Finally, the awe with which some model results are accepted is
inappropriate. All models should be carefully evaluated and their assumptions, uncertainties, and sensitivities fully explained in the context of the
application.
6.3 Barriers to Specific Players in the
Decision-Making Process
There are barriers to the use of ecological models that are specific to the
players that are a part of decision making. As mentioned earlier, one of the
key questions involved in developing a model is deciding who the participants are. In many situations, the key participants are modelers who typically have a science background; managers who have a science, engineering,
or a policy background; and stakeholders who have a diversity of backgrounds but who almost always have a passion for the situation (Figure 6.2).
The experience of modelers has two implications. First, the science culture
exerts great pressure to publish new findings. This expectation may produce
a desire to develop a new model or to use a model in a new way so that the
results are worthy of publication. However, often it is the adoption of an
existing model with or without minor modifications that is most useful for
the situation. Second, science often focuses within a discipline rather than
being cross-disciplinary. This narrow focus becomes an issue in developing
models for managing environmental resources because, often, much can be
learned from crossing disciplines. For example, McMahon et al. (2001)
report on developments in network analysis that have built upon interdisciplinary approaches. They find that social network analysis is similar to
the analysis of trophic structure in ecological communities and of energy
flow and nutrient transfer because both deal with the problem of how
to conceptualize and test interactions within complex systems. Also, it may
be that the ecological applications can benefit from the social-networkanalysis applications.
The barriers for managers largely relate to the background of that
particular manager and the fact that decisions need to be made in a timely
manner. Managers typically are not familiar with the terminology and
approach adopted by modelers. This lack of background applies to the
particular situation as well as to modeling language, such as uncertainty,
validation, scenario analysis, etc. Most models do not produce a single
answer, yet this is exactly what the resource manager is seeking. Thus,
6. Barriers to the Use of Ecological Models in Decision Making
115