315
change (as a carbon reservoir and as a sink of atmospheric CO 2 ). In particular,
vegetated SCEs or blue carbon ecosystems (e.g., mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrass meadows) are important because of their strong capability for carbon accumulation and long-term storage.
In addition, technology to mitigate climate change through conservation and restoration of SCEs, that is, technology utilizing blue carbon ecosystems, is both
feasible and more sustainable than other mitigation measures (e.g., marine iron fertilization and carbon capture and storage) in terms of technical difficulty, cost, ecological risk, social acceptance, operation, and ethics (Nellemann et al. 2009; Cusack
et al. 2014). Furthermore, the conservation and restoration of SCEs can result in not
only the mitigation of climate change but also other ecosystem services (co-benefits), including an improved food supply, water purification, tourism, recreation, and
disaster prevention (Kuwae and Hori 2018). However, because ecosystem- based
mitigation technologies use natural systems, there are large diurnal, seasonal, and
annual fluctuations and high uncertainty. Therefore, as we develop systems for the
utilization of SCEs to help mitigate climate change, it is necessary to gather field
data enabling the evaluation of uncertainty as well as to improve coupled geophysical–biogeochemical modeling for future projections.
References
Abo K, Sugimatsu K, Hori M et al (2018) Quantifying the fate of captured carbon: from seagrass
meadow to deep sea. In: Kuwae T, Hori M (eds) Blue carbon in shallow coastal ecosystems:
carbon dynamics, policy, and implementation. Springer, Singapore, pp 251–271
Akhand A, Chanda A, Manna S et al (2016) A comparison of CO 2 dynamics and air-water fluxes
in a river-dominated estuary and a mangrove-dominated marine estuary. Geophys Res Lett
43:11726–11735
Akhand A, Chanda A, Das S, Hazra S, Kuwae T (2018) CO 2 fluxes in mangrove ecosystems. In:
Kuwae T, Hori M (eds) Blue carbon in shallow coastal ecosystems: carbon dynamics, policy,
and implementation. Springer, Singapore, pp 185–221
Andersson AJ, Mackenzie FT (2004) Shallow-water oceans: a source or sink of atmospheric CO 2 ?
Front Ecol Environ 2:348–353
Arrieta JM, Mayol E, Hansman RL, Herndl GJ, Dittmar T, Duarte CM (2015) Dilution limits dissolved organic carbon utilization in the deep ocean. Science 348:331–333
Bakker DC, de Baar HJ, de Wilde HP (1996) Dissolved carbon dioxide in Dutch coastal waters.
Mar Chem 55:247–263
Bauer JE, Cai WJ, Raymond PA, Bianchi TS, Hopkinson CS, Regnier PA (2013) The changing
carbon cycle of the coastal ocean. Nature 504:61–70
Borges A, Abril G (2011) Carbon dioxide and methane dynamics in estuaries. In: Wolanski E,
McLusky D (eds) Treatise on estuarine and coastal science, volume 5: biogeochemistry.
Academic, Waltham, pp 119–161
Borges AV, Delille B, Frankignoulle M (2005) Budgeting sinks and sources of CO 2 in the coastal
ocean: diversity of ecosystem counts. Geophys Res Lett 32:L14601
Cai WJ (2011) Estuarine and coastal ocean carbon paradox: CO 2 sinks or sites of terrestrial carbon
incineration? Annu Rev Mar Sci 3:123–145
Canfield DE (1994) Factors influencing organic carbon preservation in marine sediments. Chem
Geol 114:315–329
11 CO 2 Uptake in the Shallow Coastal Ecosystems Affected…
change (as a carbon reservoir and as a sink of atmospheric CO 2 ). In particular,
vegetated SCEs or blue carbon ecosystems (e.g., mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrass meadows) are important because of their strong capability for carbon accumulation and long-term storage.
In addition, technology to mitigate climate change through conservation and restoration of SCEs, that is, technology utilizing blue carbon ecosystems, is both
feasible and more sustainable than other mitigation measures (e.g., marine iron fertilization and carbon capture and storage) in terms of technical difficulty, cost, ecological risk, social acceptance, operation, and ethics (Nellemann et al. 2009; Cusack
et al. 2014). Furthermore, the conservation and restoration of SCEs can result in not
only the mitigation of climate change but also other ecosystem services (co-benefits), including an improved food supply, water purification, tourism, recreation, and
disaster prevention (Kuwae and Hori 2018). However, because ecosystem- based
mitigation technologies use natural systems, there are large diurnal, seasonal, and
annual fluctuations and high uncertainty. Therefore, as we develop systems for the
utilization of SCEs to help mitigate climate change, it is necessary to gather field
data enabling the evaluation of uncertainty as well as to improve coupled geophysical–biogeochemical modeling for future projections.
References
Abo K, Sugimatsu K, Hori M et al (2018) Quantifying the fate of captured carbon: from seagrass
meadow to deep sea. In: Kuwae T, Hori M (eds) Blue carbon in shallow coastal ecosystems:
carbon dynamics, policy, and implementation. Springer, Singapore, pp 251–271
Akhand A, Chanda A, Manna S et al (2016) A comparison of CO 2 dynamics and air-water fluxes
in a river-dominated estuary and a mangrove-dominated marine estuary. Geophys Res Lett
43:11726–11735
Akhand A, Chanda A, Das S, Hazra S, Kuwae T (2018) CO 2 fluxes in mangrove ecosystems. In:
Kuwae T, Hori M (eds) Blue carbon in shallow coastal ecosystems: carbon dynamics, policy,
and implementation. Springer, Singapore, pp 185–221
Andersson AJ, Mackenzie FT (2004) Shallow-water oceans: a source or sink of atmospheric CO 2 ?
Front Ecol Environ 2:348–353
Arrieta JM, Mayol E, Hansman RL, Herndl GJ, Dittmar T, Duarte CM (2015) Dilution limits dissolved organic carbon utilization in the deep ocean. Science 348:331–333
Bakker DC, de Baar HJ, de Wilde HP (1996) Dissolved carbon dioxide in Dutch coastal waters.
Mar Chem 55:247–263
Bauer JE, Cai WJ, Raymond PA, Bianchi TS, Hopkinson CS, Regnier PA (2013) The changing
carbon cycle of the coastal ocean. Nature 504:61–70
Borges A, Abril G (2011) Carbon dioxide and methane dynamics in estuaries. In: Wolanski E,
McLusky D (eds) Treatise on estuarine and coastal science, volume 5: biogeochemistry.
Academic, Waltham, pp 119–161
Borges AV, Delille B, Frankignoulle M (2005) Budgeting sinks and sources of CO 2 in the coastal
ocean: diversity of ecosystem counts. Geophys Res Lett 32:L14601
Cai WJ (2011) Estuarine and coastal ocean carbon paradox: CO 2 sinks or sites of terrestrial carbon
incineration? Annu Rev Mar Sci 3:123–145
Canfield DE (1994) Factors influencing organic carbon preservation in marine sediments. Chem
Geol 114:315–329
11 CO 2 Uptake in the Shallow Coastal Ecosystems Affected…