338
ecosystems. It has been our goal in this chapter to
illustrate these benefits and to point out some of the
cautions that must be made when designing and
interpreting acidification experiments.
Acknowledgments We thank Janet Blair and Tim
Kratz for their assistance at a distance and Bob Howarth for his patience and encouragement in the
development of this chapter. Support for its production was provided by the National Science
Foundation through its Long-Term Research in Environmental Biology, Long-Term Ecological Research, and Post-Doctoral Research in Environmental Biology programs.
References
Anderson, M.P.; Bowser, CJ. The role of groundwater
in delaying lake acidification. Water Resourc. Res.
22:1101-1108; 1986.
Andersson, E; Olsson, B., eds. Lake Gardsjon: An acid
lake and its catchment. EcoI. Bull. 37:1-336; 1985.
Arvola, L; Salonen, K.; Bergstrom, I.; Heinanen, A;
Ojala, A Effects of experimental acidification on
phyto-, bacterio-, and zooplankton in enclosures of a
highly humic lake. Int. Rev. ges. HydrobioI. 71:737758; 1986.
Barmuta, L.A; Cooper, S.D.; Hamilton, S.K.; Kratz,
K.w.; Melack, J.M. Responses of zooplankton and
zoobenthos to experimental acidification in a highelevation lake (Sierra Nevada, California, U.S.A)
Freshwat. BioI. 23:571-586; 1990.
Bender, E.A; Case, T.J.; Gilpin, M.E. Perturbation experiments in community ecology: Theory and practice. Ecology 65:1-13; 1984.
Breitburg, D.; Seitzinger, S.; Saunders, J., eds. The effects of multiple stressors on freshwater and marine
aquatic ecosystems. LimnoI. Oceanogr. 44 (3, part
2):739-972; 1999.
Brezonik, P.L.; Eaton, J.G.; Frost, T.M.; Garrison, PJ.;
Kratz, T.K.; Mach, C.E.; McCormick, J.H.; Perry,
lA; Rose, W.A.; Sampson, CJ.; Shelley, B.C.L.;
Swenson, W.A; Webster, K.E. Experimental acidification of Little Rock Lake, Wisconsin: Chemical and
biological changes over the pH range 6.1 to 4.7. Can.
J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50:1101-1121; 1993.
Carpenter, S.R.; Kitchell, J.E, eds. The Trophic Cascade
in Lakes. Cambridge Studies in Ecology. New York:
Cambridge Univ. Pr.; 1993.
Carpenter, S.R; Chisholm, S.w.; Krebs, CJ.; Schindler,
D.W.; Wright, RE Ecosystem experiments. Science
269:324-327; 1995.
Thomas M. Frost and Janet M. Fischer
Carpenter, S.R.; Frost, T.M.; Heisey, D.; Kratz, T.K. Randomized intervention analysis and the interpretation
of whole-ecosystem experiments. Ecology 70:11421152; 1989.
Charles, D.E, ed. Acidic Deposition and Aquatic Ecosystems: Regional Case Studies. New York: SpringerVerlag; 1991.
Cole, lJ.; Caraco, N.E; Kling, G.W.; Kratz, T.K. Carbon
dioxide supersaturation in the surface waters of lakes.
Science 265:1568-1570; 1994.
Confer, J.L.; Kaaret, T.; Likens, G.E. Zooplankton diversity and biomass in recently acidified lakes. Can.
J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40:36-42; 1983.
Cook, R.B.; Kelly, C.A.; Schindler, D.W.; Turner, M.A.
Mechanisms of hydrogen ion neutralization in an experimentally acidified lake. LiminoI. Oceanogr.
31:134-148; 1986.
Cronan, C.S.; Schofield, C.L. Aluminum leaching in response to acid precipitation: Effects on high-elevation
watersheds in the Northeast. Science 204:304-306;
1979.
Crosby, BJ.; Ryan, P.E; Webb, J.R.; Hornberger, G.M.;
Galloway, J.N. Mountains of Western Virginia. In:
Charles, D.E, ed. Acidic Deposition and Aquatic Ecosystems: Regional Case Studies. New York: SpringerVerlag; 1991:297-318.
Dillon, P.J.; Reid, R.A; de Grosbois, E. The rate of acidification of aquatic ecosystems in Ontario, Canada.
Nature 329:45-48; 1987.
Eaton, J.G.; Swenson, W.A; McCormick, J.H.; Simonson, T.D.; Jensen, K.M. A field and laboratory investigation of acid effects on largemouth bass, rock bass,
black crappie, and yellow perch. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
121:644-658; 1992.
Elwood, lW.; Sale, M.J.; Kaufmann, P.R; Cada, G.E
The Southern Blue Ridge Province. In: Charles, D.E,
ed. Acidic Deposition and Aquatic Ecosystems: Regional Case Studies. New York: Springer-Verlag;
1991 :319-364.
Fischer, J.M. Zooplankton community responses to acidification: the role of rapid evolution and compensatory
dynamics. Ph.D. disseration, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, WI; 1997.
Frost, T.M.; DeAngelis, D.L.; Bartell, S.M.; Hall, D.J.;
Hurlbert, S.H. Scale in the design and interpretation
of aquatic community research. In Carpenter, S.R, ed.
Complex Interactions in Lake Communities. New
York: Springer-Verlag; 1988:229-258.
Frost, T.M.; Carpenter, S.R.; Ives, AR; Kratz, T.K. Species compensation and complementarity in ecosystem
function. In Jones, C.G.; Lawton, J.H., eds. Linking
Species and Ecosystems. New York: Chapman and
Hall; 1995:224-239.
Frost, T.M.; Montz, P.K. Early zooplankton response to
experimental acidification in Little Rock Lake, Wis-
ecosystems. It has been our goal in this chapter to
illustrate these benefits and to point out some of the
cautions that must be made when designing and
interpreting acidification experiments.
Acknowledgments We thank Janet Blair and Tim
Kratz for their assistance at a distance and Bob Howarth for his patience and encouragement in the
development of this chapter. Support for its production was provided by the National Science
Foundation through its Long-Term Research in Environmental Biology, Long-Term Ecological Research, and Post-Doctoral Research in Environmental Biology programs.
References
Anderson, M.P.; Bowser, CJ. The role of groundwater
in delaying lake acidification. Water Resourc. Res.
22:1101-1108; 1986.
Andersson, E; Olsson, B., eds. Lake Gardsjon: An acid
lake and its catchment. EcoI. Bull. 37:1-336; 1985.
Arvola, L; Salonen, K.; Bergstrom, I.; Heinanen, A;
Ojala, A Effects of experimental acidification on
phyto-, bacterio-, and zooplankton in enclosures of a
highly humic lake. Int. Rev. ges. HydrobioI. 71:737758; 1986.
Barmuta, L.A; Cooper, S.D.; Hamilton, S.K.; Kratz,
K.w.; Melack, J.M. Responses of zooplankton and
zoobenthos to experimental acidification in a highelevation lake (Sierra Nevada, California, U.S.A)
Freshwat. BioI. 23:571-586; 1990.
Bender, E.A; Case, T.J.; Gilpin, M.E. Perturbation experiments in community ecology: Theory and practice. Ecology 65:1-13; 1984.
Breitburg, D.; Seitzinger, S.; Saunders, J., eds. The effects of multiple stressors on freshwater and marine
aquatic ecosystems. LimnoI. Oceanogr. 44 (3, part
2):739-972; 1999.
Brezonik, P.L.; Eaton, J.G.; Frost, T.M.; Garrison, PJ.;
Kratz, T.K.; Mach, C.E.; McCormick, J.H.; Perry,
lA; Rose, W.A.; Sampson, CJ.; Shelley, B.C.L.;
Swenson, W.A; Webster, K.E. Experimental acidification of Little Rock Lake, Wisconsin: Chemical and
biological changes over the pH range 6.1 to 4.7. Can.
J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50:1101-1121; 1993.
Carpenter, S.R.; Kitchell, J.E, eds. The Trophic Cascade
in Lakes. Cambridge Studies in Ecology. New York:
Cambridge Univ. Pr.; 1993.
Carpenter, S.R; Chisholm, S.w.; Krebs, CJ.; Schindler,
D.W.; Wright, RE Ecosystem experiments. Science
269:324-327; 1995.
Thomas M. Frost and Janet M. Fischer
Carpenter, S.R.; Frost, T.M.; Heisey, D.; Kratz, T.K. Randomized intervention analysis and the interpretation
of whole-ecosystem experiments. Ecology 70:11421152; 1989.
Charles, D.E, ed. Acidic Deposition and Aquatic Ecosystems: Regional Case Studies. New York: SpringerVerlag; 1991.
Cole, lJ.; Caraco, N.E; Kling, G.W.; Kratz, T.K. Carbon
dioxide supersaturation in the surface waters of lakes.
Science 265:1568-1570; 1994.
Confer, J.L.; Kaaret, T.; Likens, G.E. Zooplankton diversity and biomass in recently acidified lakes. Can.
J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40:36-42; 1983.
Cook, R.B.; Kelly, C.A.; Schindler, D.W.; Turner, M.A.
Mechanisms of hydrogen ion neutralization in an experimentally acidified lake. LiminoI. Oceanogr.
31:134-148; 1986.
Cronan, C.S.; Schofield, C.L. Aluminum leaching in response to acid precipitation: Effects on high-elevation
watersheds in the Northeast. Science 204:304-306;
1979.
Crosby, BJ.; Ryan, P.E; Webb, J.R.; Hornberger, G.M.;
Galloway, J.N. Mountains of Western Virginia. In:
Charles, D.E, ed. Acidic Deposition and Aquatic Ecosystems: Regional Case Studies. New York: SpringerVerlag; 1991:297-318.
Dillon, P.J.; Reid, R.A; de Grosbois, E. The rate of acidification of aquatic ecosystems in Ontario, Canada.
Nature 329:45-48; 1987.
Eaton, J.G.; Swenson, W.A; McCormick, J.H.; Simonson, T.D.; Jensen, K.M. A field and laboratory investigation of acid effects on largemouth bass, rock bass,
black crappie, and yellow perch. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
121:644-658; 1992.
Elwood, lW.; Sale, M.J.; Kaufmann, P.R; Cada, G.E
The Southern Blue Ridge Province. In: Charles, D.E,
ed. Acidic Deposition and Aquatic Ecosystems: Regional Case Studies. New York: Springer-Verlag;
1991 :319-364.
Fischer, J.M. Zooplankton community responses to acidification: the role of rapid evolution and compensatory
dynamics. Ph.D. disseration, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, WI; 1997.
Frost, T.M.; DeAngelis, D.L.; Bartell, S.M.; Hall, D.J.;
Hurlbert, S.H. Scale in the design and interpretation
of aquatic community research. In Carpenter, S.R, ed.
Complex Interactions in Lake Communities. New
York: Springer-Verlag; 1988:229-258.
Frost, T.M.; Carpenter, S.R.; Ives, AR; Kratz, T.K. Species compensation and complementarity in ecosystem
function. In Jones, C.G.; Lawton, J.H., eds. Linking
Species and Ecosystems. New York: Chapman and
Hall; 1995:224-239.
Frost, T.M.; Montz, P.K. Early zooplankton response to
experimental acidification in Little Rock Lake, Wis-