339
However, we must also ensure the presence of
breeding
species,
constituting
regional
ecosystems, which provide eggs and are essential
for the permanent recovery of larvae in neighboring ecosystems. We can also consider exports as
larval feed, and even as multiple streams DNA
willing to give new life forms that would not have
existed if the spawners had been destroyed by
various types of fi shing. If the overall marine productivity (nutrients, light, and photosynthesis)
and benthic plankton is ensured, whatever the
level of protection, it is not the same for the production, which is very dependent on these habitats and survival, in good conditions, species
considered each ecosystem component.
8
The Need for Further
Research
MPAs give irreplaceable opportunities to understand in detail the functioning of ecosystems in
undisturbed conditions, such conditions support
the metamorphosis of larvae of benthic species
(Delort et al. 2000 ).
Some areas are specifi cally preserved when
they are home to rare species (Le-Saout et al.
2013 ). This is the case at sea for horseshoe crabs
(Shuster and Sekiguchi 2009 ), some species of
sea turtles, and other species whose existence is
provided for in specifi c areas.
Moreover, the continued progress of sensors
and computer technology will lead us to develop
observation and transmitter networks that enable
modeling real-time character stands and particle
fl ux, eggs, and larvae MPAs in their
environment.
To the extent that we can consider MPAs as
export sites for eggs and larvae, these particular
environments will enable the monitoring of different levels of biodiversity at the ecosystem,
species, genetic, and molecular levels.
In other domains, we need to understand the
process of creation, of present and future evolutions of MPAs.
Historians have been primarily concerned
with major events, famous people, confl icts,
societal institutions, or just the daily lives of
citizens. However, the evolution of society did
not take place in a vacuum, but in a context of
constant physical economic, social, and cultural
interference. An understanding of these factors is
essential to encourage countries without a conservation tradition to create MPAs.
9
Information and Training
The knowledge of local people and amateur
divers is often very important but also often
neglected (Hamilton et al. 2012 ; Leleu et al.
2012 ). To delineate and effectively manage
MPAs, great efforts to inform decision makers, training specialists, and control and
defense will be absolutely essential. Its most
important task is the general education of the
public and the policy makers, as well as specialist training to manage and monitor the
MPAs.
For the public who do not have the opportunity to take part in SCUBA diving, one of the
most effective ways to learn about the realities
of underwater life is to visit aquariums in
which food webs and functional ecosystem
models are represented: Nausicaa in Boulognesur-Mer, France; Aquarium La Rochelle in La
Rochelle, France; the Oceanographic Museum
of Monaco; Aquarium des Lagons in Nouméa,
New Caledonia; Océanopolis in Brest, France;
Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in Okinawa,
Japan; Georgia Aquarium in Georgia, USA;
Dubai Aquarium and Underwater Zoo in
Dubai, UAE; the Oceanografi c Valencia in
Valencia, Spain; Shanghai Ocean Aquarium
in Shanghai, China; the Aquarium of Genoa in
Genoa, Italy, etc.
Very few MPAs have met previously detailed
knowledge on their operation, their effects and
their specifi c objectives. They have not developed precise proposals for local decision makers
and scientifi c experts (Salm et al. 2000 ).
Educating anglers who make withdrawals
clearly defi ned in MPAs points can play a big role
(Smallwood and Beckley 2012 ).
Limits of the Concepts of Marine Protected Areas: Adaptation of Human Populations…
However, we must also ensure the presence of
breeding
species,
constituting
regional
ecosystems, which provide eggs and are essential
for the permanent recovery of larvae in neighboring ecosystems. We can also consider exports as
larval feed, and even as multiple streams DNA
willing to give new life forms that would not have
existed if the spawners had been destroyed by
various types of fi shing. If the overall marine productivity (nutrients, light, and photosynthesis)
and benthic plankton is ensured, whatever the
level of protection, it is not the same for the production, which is very dependent on these habitats and survival, in good conditions, species
considered each ecosystem component.
8
The Need for Further
Research
MPAs give irreplaceable opportunities to understand in detail the functioning of ecosystems in
undisturbed conditions, such conditions support
the metamorphosis of larvae of benthic species
(Delort et al. 2000 ).
Some areas are specifi cally preserved when
they are home to rare species (Le-Saout et al.
2013 ). This is the case at sea for horseshoe crabs
(Shuster and Sekiguchi 2009 ), some species of
sea turtles, and other species whose existence is
provided for in specifi c areas.
Moreover, the continued progress of sensors
and computer technology will lead us to develop
observation and transmitter networks that enable
modeling real-time character stands and particle
fl ux, eggs, and larvae MPAs in their
environment.
To the extent that we can consider MPAs as
export sites for eggs and larvae, these particular
environments will enable the monitoring of different levels of biodiversity at the ecosystem,
species, genetic, and molecular levels.
In other domains, we need to understand the
process of creation, of present and future evolutions of MPAs.
Historians have been primarily concerned
with major events, famous people, confl icts,
societal institutions, or just the daily lives of
citizens. However, the evolution of society did
not take place in a vacuum, but in a context of
constant physical economic, social, and cultural
interference. An understanding of these factors is
essential to encourage countries without a conservation tradition to create MPAs.
9
Information and Training
The knowledge of local people and amateur
divers is often very important but also often
neglected (Hamilton et al. 2012 ; Leleu et al.
2012 ). To delineate and effectively manage
MPAs, great efforts to inform decision makers, training specialists, and control and
defense will be absolutely essential. Its most
important task is the general education of the
public and the policy makers, as well as specialist training to manage and monitor the
MPAs.
For the public who do not have the opportunity to take part in SCUBA diving, one of the
most effective ways to learn about the realities
of underwater life is to visit aquariums in
which food webs and functional ecosystem
models are represented: Nausicaa in Boulognesur-Mer, France; Aquarium La Rochelle in La
Rochelle, France; the Oceanographic Museum
of Monaco; Aquarium des Lagons in Nouméa,
New Caledonia; Océanopolis in Brest, France;
Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in Okinawa,
Japan; Georgia Aquarium in Georgia, USA;
Dubai Aquarium and Underwater Zoo in
Dubai, UAE; the Oceanografi c Valencia in
Valencia, Spain; Shanghai Ocean Aquarium
in Shanghai, China; the Aquarium of Genoa in
Genoa, Italy, etc.
Very few MPAs have met previously detailed
knowledge on their operation, their effects and
their specifi c objectives. They have not developed precise proposals for local decision makers
and scientifi c experts (Salm et al. 2000 ).
Educating anglers who make withdrawals
clearly defi ned in MPAs points can play a big role
(Smallwood and Beckley 2012 ).
Limits of the Concepts of Marine Protected Areas: Adaptation of Human Populations…