338
6
Towards Artifi cial Marine
Protected Areas
It was fi rst thought that the best way to simply
preserve natural ecosystems was to deny humankind, deemed to be the main destroyer, parts of
the marine fi eld and return to nature its free operation. The most common assumption is that these
natural conditions are the most productive.
However, progress in the drawings and
achievements of artifi cial reefs has shown that
specifi c artifi cial structures favor the presence
and development of certain species (Ceccaldi
1998 , 1999 ). The production of usable organic
matter created in the photic layer is much better
used on these supports on the seabed, where bacteria destroy this matter. Much progress remains
to be made in this area to guide the composition
and functioning of coastal ecosystems.
Moreover, in some cases, one can deny access
to marine areas carefully managed by people, and
these areas behave as MPAs.
This is the case with some of the artifi cial
islands built in Japan in front of the city of Kobe.
The last island built to create the city’s airport is
surrounded by experimental sub-marine amenities for the implantation of algae forming the
basis of new ecosystems. Fishing is prohibited
and this has created, in effect, an artifi cial
MPA. Similar facilities should be considered in
all modern port areas (Ceccaldi 2006 ).
Other models to protect migratory species
may be taken in the case of bird migrations that
take place each season between Scandinavia and
Africa. Several protected artifi cial fi elds facilitating such migration areas were established in
France, such as Lake Chantecoq (in the Marne
prefecture) classifi ed as a national reserve, the
Marais d’Orx or Arjuzanx reserve on a former
mining site (in the Landes), the artifi cial lake
Puydarrieux in the Pyrenean mountains, and the
creation and maintenance of wetlands in the
Camargue, in the Rhone delta, etc.
Artifi cial arrangements to protect wildlife are
a reality. While some marine species do migrate,
which is sometimes very important, most move
with the currents, which ensures distribution,
especially in the larval stage, in their planktonic
phase, and juvenile forms, when their swimming abilities have not yet been acquired. Other
marine species migrations are performed
through a natural process of transport on natural
packages of seaweed torn from the sea fl oors by
storms (Senta 1966 ; Anraku and Azeta 1967 ;
Safran 1990 ).
Nowadays, many species live in association
with various fl oating objects, mostly plastic
(Barnes 2002 ; Barnes et al. 2009 ; OSPAR 2009 ;
Galgani 2014 ) due to the industrial and commercial activities of our developed societies. But
other debris exist, such as that from the destruction wrought by the tsunami on the coast of
Tohoku in northern Japan. These debris are estimated at 35 million cubic meters on the ground,
and a similar volume is estimated to have been
driven into the sea. Much of the debris has disrupted natural parks, especially the coastal park
Rikuchu Kaigan. Whether the presence of these
materials – wood, cement, metals, plastics, etc. –
will be harmful or benefi cial in terms of new submarine habitats is unknown as yet.
7
Services Provided by
Ecosystems Versus
Socio-ecosystems
Governments, economists, political decision
makers, and the public have begun to understand
that natural ecosystems provide immense benefi t
to human communities, and this benefi t has even
begun to be quantifi ed in purely economic terms.
This is a positive initial approach. However, ‘service rendered’ usually means that the profi ts go
in one direction: from natural resources to
humans, who are there to be served. We use these
resources, often without taking into account the
negative consequences of that use. Only now are
decisions beginning to refl ect that humans are
part of the ecosystem and not simply there to be
served – we are integrated into the overall
operation.
This integration differs widely between cultures living in direct contact with nature, particularly in marine zones.
H.-J. Ceccaldi
6
Towards Artifi cial Marine
Protected Areas
It was fi rst thought that the best way to simply
preserve natural ecosystems was to deny humankind, deemed to be the main destroyer, parts of
the marine fi eld and return to nature its free operation. The most common assumption is that these
natural conditions are the most productive.
However, progress in the drawings and
achievements of artifi cial reefs has shown that
specifi c artifi cial structures favor the presence
and development of certain species (Ceccaldi
1998 , 1999 ). The production of usable organic
matter created in the photic layer is much better
used on these supports on the seabed, where bacteria destroy this matter. Much progress remains
to be made in this area to guide the composition
and functioning of coastal ecosystems.
Moreover, in some cases, one can deny access
to marine areas carefully managed by people, and
these areas behave as MPAs.
This is the case with some of the artifi cial
islands built in Japan in front of the city of Kobe.
The last island built to create the city’s airport is
surrounded by experimental sub-marine amenities for the implantation of algae forming the
basis of new ecosystems. Fishing is prohibited
and this has created, in effect, an artifi cial
MPA. Similar facilities should be considered in
all modern port areas (Ceccaldi 2006 ).
Other models to protect migratory species
may be taken in the case of bird migrations that
take place each season between Scandinavia and
Africa. Several protected artifi cial fi elds facilitating such migration areas were established in
France, such as Lake Chantecoq (in the Marne
prefecture) classifi ed as a national reserve, the
Marais d’Orx or Arjuzanx reserve on a former
mining site (in the Landes), the artifi cial lake
Puydarrieux in the Pyrenean mountains, and the
creation and maintenance of wetlands in the
Camargue, in the Rhone delta, etc.
Artifi cial arrangements to protect wildlife are
a reality. While some marine species do migrate,
which is sometimes very important, most move
with the currents, which ensures distribution,
especially in the larval stage, in their planktonic
phase, and juvenile forms, when their swimming abilities have not yet been acquired. Other
marine species migrations are performed
through a natural process of transport on natural
packages of seaweed torn from the sea fl oors by
storms (Senta 1966 ; Anraku and Azeta 1967 ;
Safran 1990 ).
Nowadays, many species live in association
with various fl oating objects, mostly plastic
(Barnes 2002 ; Barnes et al. 2009 ; OSPAR 2009 ;
Galgani 2014 ) due to the industrial and commercial activities of our developed societies. But
other debris exist, such as that from the destruction wrought by the tsunami on the coast of
Tohoku in northern Japan. These debris are estimated at 35 million cubic meters on the ground,
and a similar volume is estimated to have been
driven into the sea. Much of the debris has disrupted natural parks, especially the coastal park
Rikuchu Kaigan. Whether the presence of these
materials – wood, cement, metals, plastics, etc. –
will be harmful or benefi cial in terms of new submarine habitats is unknown as yet.
7
Services Provided by
Ecosystems Versus
Socio-ecosystems
Governments, economists, political decision
makers, and the public have begun to understand
that natural ecosystems provide immense benefi t
to human communities, and this benefi t has even
begun to be quantifi ed in purely economic terms.
This is a positive initial approach. However, ‘service rendered’ usually means that the profi ts go
in one direction: from natural resources to
humans, who are there to be served. We use these
resources, often without taking into account the
negative consequences of that use. Only now are
decisions beginning to refl ect that humans are
part of the ecosystem and not simply there to be
served – we are integrated into the overall
operation.
This integration differs widely between cultures living in direct contact with nature, particularly in marine zones.
H.-J. Ceccaldi