306
important losses. It raises questions about the
role played by the ecosystem and its changes in
the regulation of animal diseases and about the
impact of farming practices on the farmed
oysters.
Oyster farming is able to adapt in a highly
dynamic ecosystem, because it has been organized to have the necessary fl exibility. Then, the
question is to understand how and why the adaptive process is altered: because of extreme disturbances or because of inadequate farming
operations or too strict rules.
5.2
Some First Elements
of Analysis of French Oyster
Farming Resilience
We consider it is possible to analyze the adaptability and resilience of oyster farming as a socialecological system facing fl uctuations, and we
propose some elements for a fi rst analysis, using
the case of the French oyster farming. Walker et al.
( 2004 ) give the following defi nition of resilience
“Resilience is the capacity of a system to absorb
disturbance and reorganize while undergoing
change so as to still retain essentially the same
function, structure, identity, and feedbacks” and
consider that there are four crucial aspects of resilience: latitude, resistance, precariousness, and
panarchy. For the oyster farming social-ecological
system, these aspects would deserve an in-depth
study, but we can here propose some hypothesis.
5.2.1 Latitude
Latitude is defi ned as “the maximum amount a
system can be changed before losing its ability to
recover (before crossing a threshold which, if
breached, makes recovery diffi cult or impossible).” The French oyster culture has developed a
wide range of adaptations allowing successive
recoveries and can be qualifi ed as having a large
latitude. In particular, the succession of species
( O. edulis , C. angulata , C. gigas ) can indeed lead
to conclude that the “latitude” of the SES is wide.
Although the adoption of a new species can be
long (37 years between the biological implantation of C. angulata − 1867- and the start of farming −1923-), it is done by giving up the previous,
more or less clearly. In 1970, the adoption of
C. gigas was rapid as C. angulata was eradicated
by the disease.
5.2.2 Resistance
Resistance, defi ned as “the ease or diffi culty of
changing the system; how “resistant” it is to
being changed,” is highly questionable according to components of the SES: ecologically,
there is indeed an ability of the farmed oysters to
adapt to threats and changes in environment and
techniques, and, socially, there are many situations, for instance, differences among oyster
farmers. Some producer subgroups can be resistant to changes, for example, the adoption of a
technical innovation like triploid oysters proposed by research. While easily adopted by some
producers, it has been rejected by some farmers
because of not only technical aspects but also a
wide set of arguments: environmental, economical, and philosophical (Boulanger and Mariojouls
2012 ).
5.2.3 Precariousness
It is looking to “how close the current state of the
system is to a limit or “threshold”.” This concept
deserves to be acutely looked at, as the present
situation of French oyster farming socialecological system effectively questions the existence of thresholds for this system: for biophysical
characteristics in relation with the adaptability of
the animals and for human communities and oyster farming companies.
Researchers, signifi cant players in the SES,
play regularly a role as they establish some elements of “latitude” and “precariousness.”
Concerning oyster diseases, a vaccination is diffi -
cult to develop because of a limited immune system of oysters, and breeding in open environment
makes diffi cult the control of pathogens. The only
“recovery” solution appears to be genetic selection. Interestingly, a resistant strain introduces a
new space of “latitude” and decreases the “precariousness” on biological and economical viewpoints. But on the social viewpoint, it reduces the
“latitude” as it establishes an obligation for farmers to buy selected spat from hatchery.
About precariousness, an in-depth analysis
about historical data would be required, but at
C. Mariojouls and J. Prou
important losses. It raises questions about the
role played by the ecosystem and its changes in
the regulation of animal diseases and about the
impact of farming practices on the farmed
oysters.
Oyster farming is able to adapt in a highly
dynamic ecosystem, because it has been organized to have the necessary fl exibility. Then, the
question is to understand how and why the adaptive process is altered: because of extreme disturbances or because of inadequate farming
operations or too strict rules.
5.2
Some First Elements
of Analysis of French Oyster
Farming Resilience
We consider it is possible to analyze the adaptability and resilience of oyster farming as a socialecological system facing fl uctuations, and we
propose some elements for a fi rst analysis, using
the case of the French oyster farming. Walker et al.
( 2004 ) give the following defi nition of resilience
“Resilience is the capacity of a system to absorb
disturbance and reorganize while undergoing
change so as to still retain essentially the same
function, structure, identity, and feedbacks” and
consider that there are four crucial aspects of resilience: latitude, resistance, precariousness, and
panarchy. For the oyster farming social-ecological
system, these aspects would deserve an in-depth
study, but we can here propose some hypothesis.
5.2.1 Latitude
Latitude is defi ned as “the maximum amount a
system can be changed before losing its ability to
recover (before crossing a threshold which, if
breached, makes recovery diffi cult or impossible).” The French oyster culture has developed a
wide range of adaptations allowing successive
recoveries and can be qualifi ed as having a large
latitude. In particular, the succession of species
( O. edulis , C. angulata , C. gigas ) can indeed lead
to conclude that the “latitude” of the SES is wide.
Although the adoption of a new species can be
long (37 years between the biological implantation of C. angulata − 1867- and the start of farming −1923-), it is done by giving up the previous,
more or less clearly. In 1970, the adoption of
C. gigas was rapid as C. angulata was eradicated
by the disease.
5.2.2 Resistance
Resistance, defi ned as “the ease or diffi culty of
changing the system; how “resistant” it is to
being changed,” is highly questionable according to components of the SES: ecologically,
there is indeed an ability of the farmed oysters to
adapt to threats and changes in environment and
techniques, and, socially, there are many situations, for instance, differences among oyster
farmers. Some producer subgroups can be resistant to changes, for example, the adoption of a
technical innovation like triploid oysters proposed by research. While easily adopted by some
producers, it has been rejected by some farmers
because of not only technical aspects but also a
wide set of arguments: environmental, economical, and philosophical (Boulanger and Mariojouls
2012 ).
5.2.3 Precariousness
It is looking to “how close the current state of the
system is to a limit or “threshold”.” This concept
deserves to be acutely looked at, as the present
situation of French oyster farming socialecological system effectively questions the existence of thresholds for this system: for biophysical
characteristics in relation with the adaptability of
the animals and for human communities and oyster farming companies.
Researchers, signifi cant players in the SES,
play regularly a role as they establish some elements of “latitude” and “precariousness.”
Concerning oyster diseases, a vaccination is diffi -
cult to develop because of a limited immune system of oysters, and breeding in open environment
makes diffi cult the control of pathogens. The only
“recovery” solution appears to be genetic selection. Interestingly, a resistant strain introduces a
new space of “latitude” and decreases the “precariousness” on biological and economical viewpoints. But on the social viewpoint, it reduces the
“latitude” as it establishes an obligation for farmers to buy selected spat from hatchery.
About precariousness, an in-depth analysis
about historical data would be required, but at
C. Mariojouls and J. Prou