earthquake rupture size. Journal of Structural Geology, 30,
1288–1299.
Stern, R. J., 2002. Subduction zones. Reviews of Geophysics, 40,
1–38.
Stünitz, H., and Tullis, J., 2001. Weakening and strain localization
produced by syn-deformational reaction of plagioclase. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 90, 136–148.
Stüwe, K., 2007. Geodynamics of the Lithosphere, 2nd edn. Berlin:
Springer, p. 493.
Tapponnier, P., and Molnar, P., 1976. Slip-line field theory and
large-scale continental tectonics. Nature, 264, 319–324.
Tirel, C., Brun, J.-P., and Burov, E., 2008. Dynamics and structural
development of metamorphic core complexes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113, B04403, doi:10.1029/2005JB003694.
Toussaint, G., Burov, E., and Avouac, J. P., 2004. Tectonic evolution
of a continental collision zone: a thermomechanical numerical
model. Tectonics, 23, TC6003, doi:10.1029/2003tc001604.
Turcotte, D. L., and Schubert, G., 2014. Geodynamics, 3rd edn.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 623.
Vanderhaeghe, O., 2009. Migmatites, granites and orogeny: flow
modes of partially-molten rocks and magmas associated with
melt/solid segregation in orogenic belts. Tectonophysics, 477,
119–134.
Vidal-Royo, O., Cardozo, N., Muñoz, J. A., Hardy, S., and Maerten,
L., 2012. Multiple mechanisms driving detachment folding as
deduced from 3D reconstruction and geomechanical restoration:
the Pico del Águila anticline (External Sierras, Southern Pyrenees). Basin Research, 24, 295–313.
Walsh, J. J., Childs, C., Meyer, V., Manzocchi, T., Imber, J., Nicol,
A., Tuckwell, G., Bailey, W. R., Bonson, C. G., Watterson, J.,
Nell, P. A., and Strand, J., 2001. Geometric controls on the evolution of normal fault systems. In Strachan, R. A., Magloughlin,
J. F., and Knipe, R. J. (eds.), The Nature and Significance of
Fault Zone Weakening. London: Geological Society Special
Publication, pp. 157–170.
White, N. M., Pringle, M., Garzanti, E., Bickle, M., Najman, Y.,
Chapman, H., and Friend, P., 2002. Constraints on the exhumation and erosion of the High Himalayan Slab, NW India, from
foreland basin deposits. Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
195, 29–44.
Whitney, D. L., Teyssier, C., Rey, P., and Buck, W. R., 2013. Continental and oceanic core complexes. Geological Society of
America Bulletin, 125, 273–298.
Willett, S. D., and Beaumont, C., 1994. Subduction of Asian lithospheric mantle beneath Tibet inferred from models of continental
collision. Nature, 369, 642–645.
Wortel, M. J. R., and Spakman, W., 1992. Structure and dynamics of
subducted lithosphere in the Mediterranean region. Proceedings,
Koninklijke Nederlandse Academic Wetenschappen, 95,
325–347.
Yamato, P., Burov, E., Agard, P., Le Pourhiet, L., and Jolivet, L.,
2008. HP-UHP exhumation during slow continental subduction:
self-consistent thermodynamically and thermomechanically
coupled model with application to the Western Alps. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, 271, 63–74.
Yamato, P., Kaus, B. J. P., Mouthereau, F., and Castelltort, S., 2011.
Dynamic constraints on the crustal-scale rheology of the Zagros
fold belt, Iran. Geology, 39, 815–818.
Zwart, H. J., 1967. The duality of orogenic belts. Geologie en
Mijnbouw, 46, 283–309.
Cross-references
Accretionary Wedges
Active Continental Margins
Driving Forces: Slab Pull, Ridge Push
Earthquakes
High-pressure, Low-temperature Metamorphism
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes
Intraoceanic Subduction Zone
Island Arc Volcanism, Volcanic Arcs
Lithosphere: Structure and Composition
Magmatism at Convergent Plate Boundaries
Marine Heat Flow
Metamorphic Core Complexes
Mid-ocean Ridge Magmatism and Volcanism
Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho)
Morphology Across Convergent Plate Boundaries
Oceanic Spreading Centers
Paired Metamorphic Belts
Serpentinization
Subduction
Transform Faults
Wilson Cycle
OXYGEN ISOTOPES
Mark Maslin
1 and Alexander J. Dickson
2
1
Department of Geography, University College London,
London, UK
2
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford,
Oxford, UK
Definition
Marine sediments provide long continuous records of past
climate changes at intraannual, annual to centennial scale
resolutions enabling insights into past changes within both
oceanic and continental environments. Stable oxygen isotopes are a fundamental tool for paleoceanographers providing the means to reconstruct a range of variables
including sea surface and bottom water temperature, sea
surface salinity, sea-level, river discharge, and iceberg
activity. Comprehensive introductions on oxygen isotopes
and their physicochemical behavior/systematics are given
in Craig and Gordon (1965), Garlick (1974), Hoefs
(1997), Criss (1999), Rohling and Cooke (1999), Zeebe
and Wolf-Gladrow (2001) and Pearson (2012).
Oxygen isotopes in marine archives
Oxygen isotope compositions can be measured in many
forms of mineral, including calcite, aragonite, opal, and
barite. The shells of carbonate producing organisms have
most commonly been used for d
18 O analysis, and have
underpinned many of the advances in stratigraphy and
paleoceanographic reconstruction that have been made
in recent decades. However, d
18
O in the other minerals
has also been extremely important in allowing d
18
O-based
paleoclimate reconstructions to be extended into
carbonate-poor regions of the global oceans and in
complementing carbonate-derived data in regions where
the different minerals coexist.
There are several major influences on the d
18
O compositions in marine minerals (Eq. 1). First is the d
18 O of the
seawater in which minerals precipitate (Dd
18
O w ). This is
610
OXYGEN ISOTOPES
1288–1299.
Stern, R. J., 2002. Subduction zones. Reviews of Geophysics, 40,
1–38.
Stünitz, H., and Tullis, J., 2001. Weakening and strain localization
produced by syn-deformational reaction of plagioclase. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 90, 136–148.
Stüwe, K., 2007. Geodynamics of the Lithosphere, 2nd edn. Berlin:
Springer, p. 493.
Tapponnier, P., and Molnar, P., 1976. Slip-line field theory and
large-scale continental tectonics. Nature, 264, 319–324.
Tirel, C., Brun, J.-P., and Burov, E., 2008. Dynamics and structural
development of metamorphic core complexes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113, B04403, doi:10.1029/2005JB003694.
Toussaint, G., Burov, E., and Avouac, J. P., 2004. Tectonic evolution
of a continental collision zone: a thermomechanical numerical
model. Tectonics, 23, TC6003, doi:10.1029/2003tc001604.
Turcotte, D. L., and Schubert, G., 2014. Geodynamics, 3rd edn.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 623.
Vanderhaeghe, O., 2009. Migmatites, granites and orogeny: flow
modes of partially-molten rocks and magmas associated with
melt/solid segregation in orogenic belts. Tectonophysics, 477,
119–134.
Vidal-Royo, O., Cardozo, N., Muñoz, J. A., Hardy, S., and Maerten,
L., 2012. Multiple mechanisms driving detachment folding as
deduced from 3D reconstruction and geomechanical restoration:
the Pico del Águila anticline (External Sierras, Southern Pyrenees). Basin Research, 24, 295–313.
Walsh, J. J., Childs, C., Meyer, V., Manzocchi, T., Imber, J., Nicol,
A., Tuckwell, G., Bailey, W. R., Bonson, C. G., Watterson, J.,
Nell, P. A., and Strand, J., 2001. Geometric controls on the evolution of normal fault systems. In Strachan, R. A., Magloughlin,
J. F., and Knipe, R. J. (eds.), The Nature and Significance of
Fault Zone Weakening. London: Geological Society Special
Publication, pp. 157–170.
White, N. M., Pringle, M., Garzanti, E., Bickle, M., Najman, Y.,
Chapman, H., and Friend, P., 2002. Constraints on the exhumation and erosion of the High Himalayan Slab, NW India, from
foreland basin deposits. Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
195, 29–44.
Whitney, D. L., Teyssier, C., Rey, P., and Buck, W. R., 2013. Continental and oceanic core complexes. Geological Society of
America Bulletin, 125, 273–298.
Willett, S. D., and Beaumont, C., 1994. Subduction of Asian lithospheric mantle beneath Tibet inferred from models of continental
collision. Nature, 369, 642–645.
Wortel, M. J. R., and Spakman, W., 1992. Structure and dynamics of
subducted lithosphere in the Mediterranean region. Proceedings,
Koninklijke Nederlandse Academic Wetenschappen, 95,
325–347.
Yamato, P., Burov, E., Agard, P., Le Pourhiet, L., and Jolivet, L.,
2008. HP-UHP exhumation during slow continental subduction:
self-consistent thermodynamically and thermomechanically
coupled model with application to the Western Alps. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, 271, 63–74.
Yamato, P., Kaus, B. J. P., Mouthereau, F., and Castelltort, S., 2011.
Dynamic constraints on the crustal-scale rheology of the Zagros
fold belt, Iran. Geology, 39, 815–818.
Zwart, H. J., 1967. The duality of orogenic belts. Geologie en
Mijnbouw, 46, 283–309.
Cross-references
Accretionary Wedges
Active Continental Margins
Driving Forces: Slab Pull, Ridge Push
Earthquakes
High-pressure, Low-temperature Metamorphism
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes
Intraoceanic Subduction Zone
Island Arc Volcanism, Volcanic Arcs
Lithosphere: Structure and Composition
Magmatism at Convergent Plate Boundaries
Marine Heat Flow
Metamorphic Core Complexes
Mid-ocean Ridge Magmatism and Volcanism
Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho)
Morphology Across Convergent Plate Boundaries
Oceanic Spreading Centers
Paired Metamorphic Belts
Serpentinization
Subduction
Transform Faults
Wilson Cycle
OXYGEN ISOTOPES
Mark Maslin
1 and Alexander J. Dickson
2
1
Department of Geography, University College London,
London, UK
2
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford,
Oxford, UK
Definition
Marine sediments provide long continuous records of past
climate changes at intraannual, annual to centennial scale
resolutions enabling insights into past changes within both
oceanic and continental environments. Stable oxygen isotopes are a fundamental tool for paleoceanographers providing the means to reconstruct a range of variables
including sea surface and bottom water temperature, sea
surface salinity, sea-level, river discharge, and iceberg
activity. Comprehensive introductions on oxygen isotopes
and their physicochemical behavior/systematics are given
in Craig and Gordon (1965), Garlick (1974), Hoefs
(1997), Criss (1999), Rohling and Cooke (1999), Zeebe
and Wolf-Gladrow (2001) and Pearson (2012).
Oxygen isotopes in marine archives
Oxygen isotope compositions can be measured in many
forms of mineral, including calcite, aragonite, opal, and
barite. The shells of carbonate producing organisms have
most commonly been used for d
18 O analysis, and have
underpinned many of the advances in stratigraphy and
paleoceanographic reconstruction that have been made
in recent decades. However, d
18
O in the other minerals
has also been extremely important in allowing d
18
O-based
paleoclimate reconstructions to be extended into
carbonate-poor regions of the global oceans and in
complementing carbonate-derived data in regions where
the different minerals coexist.
There are several major influences on the d
18
O compositions in marine minerals (Eq. 1). First is the d
18 O of the
seawater in which minerals precipitate (Dd
18
O w ). This is
610
OXYGEN ISOTOPES