CHAPTER 19 • Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Sweden
comes operational in step 4. Management programs come into effect, projects are designed, a monitoring and evaluation program is initiated.
The information to be collected includes the coastal resource base (fishing, recreation, mining, assessment of water, soil and air ecosystems), the social organization in
the coastal zone (villages, towns and their economic base, indigenous people and social issues), already existing resource related programs (fisheries management programs, environmental regulatory programs, as related to protected areas, erosion management, pollution control) the institutional, legal and fmancial capacity available.
A key decision is the size of the area to be managed ideally extending inland to the
upper reaches of the coastal watersheds and seaward to the 12 nautical mile limit of
the territorial sea. The non-governmental sector may playa role, including the private
sector a,nd local communities. Long term development objectives can be secured by
creating incentives for sustainable management. They include property right protection, fiscal measures and coastal tenure systems. Possibilities for economic development are to be explored.
Program formulation is followed by program implementation. The following measures and conditions improve the chances for effective implementation. High visibility
improvements are achieved at an early program stage. The program policy is clearly
spelled out. The program goals and its elements are quantitatively measurable. The
institutions involved are clearly responsible and held accountable. Sufficient human
and financial resources are allotted. The public is aware of the program and supportive.
Monitoring, evaluation and enforcement activities, finally, are instrumental to continuously improve the process. The monitoring and evaluating procedure includes the
following elements. The expected performance is identified and compared with the
actual performance. Variances between the two need to be communicated. The enforcement of rules and regulations depends on public knowledge and governmental program credibility. Strong enforcement capacities are needed if breaking the rules results in economic benefits for certain groups of stakeholders.
19.3.3
The Commons
When Garrett Hardin, professor of biology at Santa Barbara, University of California,
introduced his ideas about the tragedy of the commons 30 years ago on not more than
six pages (Hardin 1968) - what exactly did he have in mind? Hardin was one of the
early limits to growth prophets and fed right into the Forrester and Meadows world
models. He was a strict Malthusianist, advocating for birth control « ••• by relinquishing the freedom to breed" (op. cit., 1248).
A secondary thesis developed out of his conviction to limit population growth: the
tragedy of the commons. Commons of whatever type cannot be maintained under
conditions of population density. He referred to farm land just as to fishing areas. The
term tragedy was used in the classical Greek sense of an inevitable destiny. The inevitable destiny of the commons was, according to Hardin, that all gains are private whereas
the losses are public, they are shared. The commons can only be managed if we abandon the freedom to breed.
Twenty-two years later, a group of anthropologists and human ecologists, most of
them specifically interested in fisheries, published a critical review and update of
comes operational in step 4. Management programs come into effect, projects are designed, a monitoring and evaluation program is initiated.
The information to be collected includes the coastal resource base (fishing, recreation, mining, assessment of water, soil and air ecosystems), the social organization in
the coastal zone (villages, towns and their economic base, indigenous people and social issues), already existing resource related programs (fisheries management programs, environmental regulatory programs, as related to protected areas, erosion management, pollution control) the institutional, legal and fmancial capacity available.
A key decision is the size of the area to be managed ideally extending inland to the
upper reaches of the coastal watersheds and seaward to the 12 nautical mile limit of
the territorial sea. The non-governmental sector may playa role, including the private
sector a,nd local communities. Long term development objectives can be secured by
creating incentives for sustainable management. They include property right protection, fiscal measures and coastal tenure systems. Possibilities for economic development are to be explored.
Program formulation is followed by program implementation. The following measures and conditions improve the chances for effective implementation. High visibility
improvements are achieved at an early program stage. The program policy is clearly
spelled out. The program goals and its elements are quantitatively measurable. The
institutions involved are clearly responsible and held accountable. Sufficient human
and financial resources are allotted. The public is aware of the program and supportive.
Monitoring, evaluation and enforcement activities, finally, are instrumental to continuously improve the process. The monitoring and evaluating procedure includes the
following elements. The expected performance is identified and compared with the
actual performance. Variances between the two need to be communicated. The enforcement of rules and regulations depends on public knowledge and governmental program credibility. Strong enforcement capacities are needed if breaking the rules results in economic benefits for certain groups of stakeholders.
19.3.3
The Commons
When Garrett Hardin, professor of biology at Santa Barbara, University of California,
introduced his ideas about the tragedy of the commons 30 years ago on not more than
six pages (Hardin 1968) - what exactly did he have in mind? Hardin was one of the
early limits to growth prophets and fed right into the Forrester and Meadows world
models. He was a strict Malthusianist, advocating for birth control « ••• by relinquishing the freedom to breed" (op. cit., 1248).
A secondary thesis developed out of his conviction to limit population growth: the
tragedy of the commons. Commons of whatever type cannot be maintained under
conditions of population density. He referred to farm land just as to fishing areas. The
term tragedy was used in the classical Greek sense of an inevitable destiny. The inevitable destiny of the commons was, according to Hardin, that all gains are private whereas
the losses are public, they are shared. The commons can only be managed if we abandon the freedom to breed.
Twenty-two years later, a group of anthropologists and human ecologists, most of
them specifically interested in fisheries, published a critical review and update of