CHAPTER 19 • Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Sweden
19.3
Policy and Planning
19.3.1
Conceptual Framework
The coastal zone conveys the notion of a land-sea interface. This interface has two axes
- one axis is parallel to the shore (longshore), and the other axis is perpendicular to
the shore (on/off-shore). There is relatively little controversy concerning the definition of the longshore axis since it does not typically cross environmental systems
boundaries, with the exception of watersheds and major headlands. There is, in contrast, cOl,lsiderable discussion about the on/off-shore axis. Coastal zone management
should he based upon an ecosystem approach. Such an approach implies that the on/
off-shore axis should cover part of the hinterland and include the associated aquatic
ecosystems, spawning migratory fish or the economic impacts of coastal activities on
inland areas (OECD 1993b).
There are quite a number of countries that are presently adopting ICZM programs.
There are very few, however, that have had programs in full operation. Among the latter is the USA where programs have started around 1972 and continuously grown and
expanded so that evaluations can be done. An example is provided by NOAA (National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) which evaluated a total of 235 state Coastal
Zone Management Programs (CZMPs) that were issued in the twenty year period between 1977 and 1996 (OCRM 1997). Some earlier reviews focus on integrative frameworks and methods for coastal management and include the research needs of the
academic disciplines involved (Chua and Scura 1992; Clark 1992).
There has been some confusion or at least diverging opinions as to what ICZM really means. We can follow Jens Sorensen who took on the task of defining ICZM and
its components (Sorensen 1997). First of all, there is a difference between a "coastal area"
and a "coastal zone". There are six types of coastal areas:
1. Coastal waters, the area measured oceanward from a tidal mark;
2. The coastline or shoreline, the area between high tide and low tide;
3. The coastlands and shorelands, the area extending inland from a tidal mark.
These first three types can overlap. Their combination results in
4. Coastal waters and coastline;
5. Coastline and coastlands;
6. Coastal waters, coastline and coastlands.
A coastal zone, by contrast, includes offshi!Jre waters, a coastline and shorelands. An
ICM program can thus be directed at anyone of the six areas whereas a CZM program
has to include all three geographic components.
The term management must be distinguished from planning. Planning is a process
to analyze coastal systems, including their environments and natural resource use, in
order to provide a framework that guides decision ~akers to allocate scarce resources
(such as capital investments, land, water, fish) among-stakeholders. The framework is
19.3
Policy and Planning
19.3.1
Conceptual Framework
The coastal zone conveys the notion of a land-sea interface. This interface has two axes
- one axis is parallel to the shore (longshore), and the other axis is perpendicular to
the shore (on/off-shore). There is relatively little controversy concerning the definition of the longshore axis since it does not typically cross environmental systems
boundaries, with the exception of watersheds and major headlands. There is, in contrast, cOl,lsiderable discussion about the on/off-shore axis. Coastal zone management
should he based upon an ecosystem approach. Such an approach implies that the on/
off-shore axis should cover part of the hinterland and include the associated aquatic
ecosystems, spawning migratory fish or the economic impacts of coastal activities on
inland areas (OECD 1993b).
There are quite a number of countries that are presently adopting ICZM programs.
There are very few, however, that have had programs in full operation. Among the latter is the USA where programs have started around 1972 and continuously grown and
expanded so that evaluations can be done. An example is provided by NOAA (National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) which evaluated a total of 235 state Coastal
Zone Management Programs (CZMPs) that were issued in the twenty year period between 1977 and 1996 (OCRM 1997). Some earlier reviews focus on integrative frameworks and methods for coastal management and include the research needs of the
academic disciplines involved (Chua and Scura 1992; Clark 1992).
There has been some confusion or at least diverging opinions as to what ICZM really means. We can follow Jens Sorensen who took on the task of defining ICZM and
its components (Sorensen 1997). First of all, there is a difference between a "coastal area"
and a "coastal zone". There are six types of coastal areas:
1. Coastal waters, the area measured oceanward from a tidal mark;
2. The coastline or shoreline, the area between high tide and low tide;
3. The coastlands and shorelands, the area extending inland from a tidal mark.
These first three types can overlap. Their combination results in
4. Coastal waters and coastline;
5. Coastline and coastlands;
6. Coastal waters, coastline and coastlands.
A coastal zone, by contrast, includes offshi!Jre waters, a coastline and shorelands. An
ICM program can thus be directed at anyone of the six areas whereas a CZM program
has to include all three geographic components.
The term management must be distinguished from planning. Planning is a process
to analyze coastal systems, including their environments and natural resource use, in
order to provide a framework that guides decision ~akers to allocate scarce resources
(such as capital investments, land, water, fish) among-stakeholders. The framework is