B. Glaeser
rinas for leisure craft in spawning grounds and nursery areas for wild populations of
fish present a long term problem. Spawning grounds, nursery and fishing areas are not
suitable places for aquaculture. Aquaculture may in return influence the natural ecosystem in that wild stocks of salmon or other fish species may be harmed (Ackefors et al.
1991). Contagious diseases may spread from aquaculture to natural fish populations
and vice versa.
There is an ongoing conflict between wild animals such as bird and mammals and
the fishing industry. an increasing problem is that of cormorants. The cormorant
(Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis), has received protected status, and has a worldwide distribution. The north European population, including the non-protected Phalacrocorax
carbo carbo, has increased from about 20000 in 1978 to 160000 in 1992 (EIFAC 1994)
~d may have an impact on fish populations and aquaculture farms.
, Seals are another problem for fishermen as well as for fish farmers. All hunting
of seal is currently prohibited, which has also been recommended by the Helsinki
convention. At present there are 5000 gray seals (in the Baltic Sea), 4000 ringed seals
(in the Gulf of Bothnia) and 370 harbor seals in the Baltic area. At the beginning of
the century there were 100 000 gray seals in the Baltic area. Fishermen have now
requested that hunting be reintroduced. However, the attitude of authorities, based
on facts presented by scientists, is that it is too early to agree on this. In 1993 Swedish
authorities paid SEK 6.3 million in compensation to fishermen whose gear was damaged by seals.
19.2.2
Mariculture
"Modern aquaculture started to develop Sweden in the late '70S. At that time much of
the coastal zone was already used for other purposes" (Ackefors et al. 1982). Conflicts
have arisen as a, result of farmers wishing to establish aquaculture in areas particularly worthy of conservation. Rare plant and animal species may be on obstacle, unique
terrestrial or aquatic habitats another. The main problem, however, is usually the discharge of nutrients and organic matter. The preservation of historical monuments is
another reason for preventing the establishment of aquaculture. The introduction of
genetically modified species presents a new problem. Escapes from cage farming may
lead to genetic changes of natural salmon populations.
Mussel farming was established on the Swedish west coast in the late '70S (Haamer
1977; Ackefors and Haamer 1987; Haamer 1995). Birds protected under the Nature Conservation Act are a problem: It has been estimated that an adult eider consumes 2.5 kg
of mussels daily. A flock of ducks can easily consume an entire mussel harvest.
Conflicts arose with people who have built holiday cottages. This is very common
along the coast of Sweden close to urban areas. Industrial operating permits, including aquaculture, have often been appe~ed by owners of such cottages. In those cases it
is the Governm€nt that makes the fmal decision (Anonymous 1993) In addition, concern has been expressed by people bathing on beaches close to aquaculture operations;
they are afraid of bathing in the vicinity of farms. Outdoor leisure activities and tourism conflict with aquaculture. Leisure boats and water skiing disturb aquaculture. The
disturbance includes effects on cage farming and discharges of waste from boats and
urban settlements.
rinas for leisure craft in spawning grounds and nursery areas for wild populations of
fish present a long term problem. Spawning grounds, nursery and fishing areas are not
suitable places for aquaculture. Aquaculture may in return influence the natural ecosystem in that wild stocks of salmon or other fish species may be harmed (Ackefors et al.
1991). Contagious diseases may spread from aquaculture to natural fish populations
and vice versa.
There is an ongoing conflict between wild animals such as bird and mammals and
the fishing industry. an increasing problem is that of cormorants. The cormorant
(Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis), has received protected status, and has a worldwide distribution. The north European population, including the non-protected Phalacrocorax
carbo carbo, has increased from about 20000 in 1978 to 160000 in 1992 (EIFAC 1994)
~d may have an impact on fish populations and aquaculture farms.
, Seals are another problem for fishermen as well as for fish farmers. All hunting
of seal is currently prohibited, which has also been recommended by the Helsinki
convention. At present there are 5000 gray seals (in the Baltic Sea), 4000 ringed seals
(in the Gulf of Bothnia) and 370 harbor seals in the Baltic area. At the beginning of
the century there were 100 000 gray seals in the Baltic area. Fishermen have now
requested that hunting be reintroduced. However, the attitude of authorities, based
on facts presented by scientists, is that it is too early to agree on this. In 1993 Swedish
authorities paid SEK 6.3 million in compensation to fishermen whose gear was damaged by seals.
19.2.2
Mariculture
"Modern aquaculture started to develop Sweden in the late '70S. At that time much of
the coastal zone was already used for other purposes" (Ackefors et al. 1982). Conflicts
have arisen as a, result of farmers wishing to establish aquaculture in areas particularly worthy of conservation. Rare plant and animal species may be on obstacle, unique
terrestrial or aquatic habitats another. The main problem, however, is usually the discharge of nutrients and organic matter. The preservation of historical monuments is
another reason for preventing the establishment of aquaculture. The introduction of
genetically modified species presents a new problem. Escapes from cage farming may
lead to genetic changes of natural salmon populations.
Mussel farming was established on the Swedish west coast in the late '70S (Haamer
1977; Ackefors and Haamer 1987; Haamer 1995). Birds protected under the Nature Conservation Act are a problem: It has been estimated that an adult eider consumes 2.5 kg
of mussels daily. A flock of ducks can easily consume an entire mussel harvest.
Conflicts arose with people who have built holiday cottages. This is very common
along the coast of Sweden close to urban areas. Industrial operating permits, including aquaculture, have often been appe~ed by owners of such cottages. In those cases it
is the Governm€nt that makes the fmal decision (Anonymous 1993) In addition, concern has been expressed by people bathing on beaches close to aquaculture operations;
they are afraid of bathing in the vicinity of farms. Outdoor leisure activities and tourism conflict with aquaculture. Leisure boats and water skiing disturb aquaculture. The
disturbance includes effects on cage farming and discharges of waste from boats and
urban settlements.